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Recent Advances in Development of Waste-Based Polymer Materials: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14051050. [PMID: 35267873 PMCID: PMC8914771 DOI: 10.3390/polym14051050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Limited petroleum sources, suitable law regulations, and higher awareness within society has caused sustainable development of manufacturing and recycling of polymer blends and composites to be gaining increasing attention. This work aims to report recent advances in the manufacturing of environmentally friendly and low-cost polymer materials based on post-production and post-consumer wastes. Sustainable development of three groups of materials: wood polymer composites, polyurethane foams, and rubber recycling products were comprehensively described. Special attention was focused on examples of industrially applicable technologies developed in Poland over the last five years. Moreover, current trends and limitations in the future “green” development of waste-based polymer materials were also discussed.
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Pal K, Satpathi H, Bhandary T, Samui BK, Bhattacharyya S, Naskar K, Mukhopadhyay R. Understanding the influence of anti‐reversion agent and metal oxide dose on natural rubber–carbon black system. POLYM ENG SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pen.25787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Koushik Pal
- R&D Centre Hari Shankar Singhania Elastomer and Tyre Research Institute Mysore India
| | - Hirak Satpathi
- R&D Centre Hari Shankar Singhania Elastomer and Tyre Research Institute Mysore India
| | - Tirthankar Bhandary
- R&D Centre Hari Shankar Singhania Elastomer and Tyre Research Institute Mysore India
| | - Barun Kumar Samui
- R&D Centre Hari Shankar Singhania Elastomer and Tyre Research Institute Mysore India
| | - Sanjay Bhattacharyya
- R&D Centre Hari Shankar Singhania Elastomer and Tyre Research Institute Mysore India
| | - Kinsuk Naskar
- Rubber Technology Centre Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur India
| | - Rabindra Mukhopadhyay
- R&D Centre Hari Shankar Singhania Elastomer and Tyre Research Institute Mysore India
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Drossel WG, Ihlemann J, Landgraf R, Oelsch E, Schmidt M. Media for Dimensional Stabilization of Rubber Compounds during Additive Manufacturing and Vulcanization. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14061337. [PMID: 33802017 PMCID: PMC7998452 DOI: 10.3390/ma14061337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The current article proposes a concept for the additive manufacturing of rubber components using extrusion-based 3D printing, in which an additional medium is added to ensure the maintenance of shape within the elastomeric structure during the additive manufacturing process and in the subsequent vulcanization process. Specific requirements for the dimensional stabilization of the media were defined and suitable media were derived. Silicone rubber, molding sand, and plaster were examined in experimental vulcanization tests for their suitability as possible media with regard to shape retention. Selected rubber geometries made of NBR were embedded in these media to undergo the vulcanization process. The results show a significant influence of the media on the heating times. All media were able to ensure that the rubber geometries maintained their shape during vulcanization. Nevertheless, some side effects were found. The silicone rubber did not cure properly around the rubber sample. Therefore, it was difficult to remove it from the rubber after vulcanization. The molding sand caused an increased surface roughness on the rubber. Plaster changed the glossy surfaces at the beginning to a matte one after vulcanization and residuals were difficult to remove. However, all media can serve as stabilization media with specific changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Welf-Guntram Drossel
- Professorship Adaptronics and Lightweight Design in Production, Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany; or
- Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology IWU, Reichenhainer Straße 88, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Jörn Ihlemann
- Chair of Solid Mechanics, Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany; (J.I.); (R.L.); (E.O.)
| | - Ralf Landgraf
- Chair of Solid Mechanics, Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany; (J.I.); (R.L.); (E.O.)
| | - Erik Oelsch
- Chair of Solid Mechanics, Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany; (J.I.); (R.L.); (E.O.)
| | - Marek Schmidt
- Professorship Adaptronics and Lightweight Design in Production, Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany; or
- Correspondence:
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Xing Z, Zhang L, Zhang Y, Li D. EFFECTS OF CROSSLINK BOND TYPE OF IIR-BASED WASTE RUBBER POWDER ON THE EPDM-ASSISTED DEVULCANIZATION REACTION. RUBBER CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.5254/rct.21.79956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Isobutylene–isoprene rubber (IIR)–based waste rubber powder (WRP) present in WRP/ethylene–propylene–diene monomer (EPDM) blends was devulcanized through a stress-induced reaction by increasing the screw rotation speed in the presence of subcritical ethanol. The effects of crosslink bond type (which was cured using phenolic resin, sulphur, or zinc oxide) of WRP and the screw rotation speed on devulcanization were investigated. The results showed that the Mooney viscosity and gel content of the devulcanized blends (DWRP/EPDM) decreased with an increase in the screw rotation speed, and the optimal screw rotation speed maximized the molecular weight (Mη) of sols and enhanced the mechanical properties of the revulcanized material. The optimal screw rotation speed for the phenolic resin-cured WRP1 and zinc oxide-cured WRP3 was 500 r min−1 and that for sulphur-cured WRP2 was 300 r min−1. At the optimal screw rotation speed, crosslink bonds severely fractured, and the main chain structure remained relatively intact. The 1H-NMR spectra of the sol in the devulcanized blends (DWRP/EPDM) confirmed that the content of the alpha and double-bond protons of sols are the highest at the optimal screw rotation speed, and many promoting agent (480) molecules penetrate and participate in devulcanization. Scanning electron microscopy images indicated that the size of the unfused gel particles in the mixed-revulcanized materials of IIR/(DWRP1/EPDM), IIR/(DWRP2/EPDM), and BIIR/(DWRP3/EPDM) was the smallest at the optimal screw rotation speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyuan Xing
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Ling Zhang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Yuncan Zhang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Dongxu Li
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
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Simon DÁ, Pirityi DZ, Bárány T. Devulcanization of ground tire rubber: microwave and thermomechanical approaches. Sci Rep 2020; 10:16587. [PMID: 33024164 PMCID: PMC7538573 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-73543-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We devulcanized ground tire rubber (GTR) in a laboratory microwave oven and an internal mixer, measured the soluble content and the cross-link density of the samples, and then used Horikx's analysis. The results showed that microwave treatment caused severe degradation of the polymer chains, while in the case of thermomechanical devulcanization, the selective scission of covalent cross-links is more common. Four devulcanized ground tire rubber (dGTR) samples were chosen for further study and three groups of samples were produced: dGTR samples containing vulcanizing agents and different amounts of paraffin oil (dGTR-based mixtures), natural rubber-based rubber mixtures with different dGTR contents and reference rubber mixtures with dGTR-based mixtures (increased vulcanizing agent contents). Cure characteristics showed a plasticizer-like effect of dGTR. Tensile and tear strength decreased drastically with increasing dGTR content; however, elongation at break values did not follow such a trend. Mechanical properties improved with increased vulcanizing agent contents. The examined properties of the samples improved even further with the use of thermomechanically devulcanized samples. Horikx's analysis showed that this is attributable to moderate polymer chain scission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dániel Ábel Simon
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., Budapest, 1111, Hungary
| | - Dávid Zoltán Pirityi
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., Budapest, 1111, Hungary
| | - Tamás Bárány
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., Budapest, 1111, Hungary.
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Cure characteristics and physico-mechanical properties of natural rubber/silica composites: effect of natural rubber-graft-poly(2-hydroxyethyl acrylate) content. Polym Bull (Berl) 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-020-03199-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Elastomeric Composites Containing SBR Industrial Scraps Devulcanized by Microwaves: Raw Material, Not a Trash. RECYCLING 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/recycling5010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Environmental concerns about waste management systems have stimulated the search for technological and economical alternatives that introduce waste as raw material for production cycles. In this sense, this study aimed to develop and characterize styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) composites that contain industrial rubber scraps devulcanized by microwaves (SBR-r) as a reinforcing filler. The scraps were ground under ambient conditions. From the obtained powder (SBR-r), composites were prepared, varying the exposure time of the powder to the microwaves (1, 2, and 3 min), as well as the SBR-r content. These composites were compared to a Reference sample (base formulation without SBR-r). The vulcanization parameters were determined by an oscillating disk rheometer. After vulcanization, the composites were characterized by mechanical properties (tensile and tear strength, and compression set). These properties were also evaluated after accelerated aging in an air oven and a UV chamber (ultraviolet light). The results indicated that as a result of increasing the exposure time of the waste to the microwaves, no significant influence in the composite properties was observed. Aged samples presented higher results as compared with the Reference sample (tensile strength up to 175% higher, tear strength up to 107% higher, and compression set up to 91% higher), which indicates the possibility of using these materials in technological applications, such as in the civil and automotive industries.
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The Influence of UV-Accelerated Aging Process on Industrial Waste Containing EPDM. RECYCLING 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/recycling4020025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
One of the most efficient ways to recycle elastomeric residues from industrial processes is to incorporate them into compositions. The study of these new compositions is interesting in terms of reducing cost, the consumption of raw materials, and the generation of new waste, working towards sustainable development. Thus, this research aimed to produce and characterize elastomeric blends containing one phase comprised of ethylene–propylene–diene monomer rubber (EPDM) industrial waste aged by the action of ultraviolet radiation (UV) in a UV chamber, and the other comprised of raw EPDM, containing different concentrations of residue. Therefore, the mechanical properties and the vulcanization characteristics of the blends containing different concentrations of EPDM residue—aged and un-aged—were analyzed and compared to the properties of a standard formulation (Control). The results showed that the aging of the waste for a period of 156 h did not trigger a severe degradation process. Additionally, its reuse into new compositions promoted improvements of the studied mechanical properties without compromising the vulcanization characteristics due to the higher molecular stiffness of the samples.
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In the Search for Sustainable Processing in Compounds Containing Recycled Natural Rubber: The Role of the Reversion Process. RECYCLING 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/recycling3040047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The production of consumption goods made of elastomers is increasing day by day, producing large amounts of vulcanized/cured residues which constitute a serious socio-environmental problem. An option for companies that produce elastomeric residues is their incorporation in the formulations, by producing polymeric blends with ground waste elastomers. Therefore, this work aims to prepare polymeric blends composed of raw natural rubber (NR)/ground waste NR in different concentrations. The influence of vulcanization reversion as result of additional heating during compression molding on the mechanical properties of the blends was analyzed, and the relationship among vulcanization characteristics, dynamic-mechanical, morphology and mechanical properties of blends was also determined.
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Simon DÁ, Halász IZ, Karger-Kocsis J, Bárány T. Microwave Devulcanized Crumb Rubbers in Polypropylene Based Thermoplastic Dynamic Vulcanizates. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:polym10070767. [PMID: 30960692 PMCID: PMC6403957 DOI: 10.3390/polym10070767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Because of the chemically crosslinked 3D molecular structure of rubbers, their recycling is a challenging task, especially when cost efficiency is also considered. One of the most straightforward procedures is the grinding of discarded rubber products with subsequent devulcanization. The devulcanized rubber can be used as a feedstock for fresh rubber compounds or can be blended with uncured virgin rubber and thermoplastic polymers to form thermoplastic dynamic vulcanizates (TDVs). TDVs combine the beneficial (re)processability of thermoplastics and the elastic properties of rubbers. Our current work focuses on the development of polypropylene (PP)-based TDVs with the use of a tire model rubber (MR) composed of natural rubber (NR) and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) in a ratio of 70/30. The research target was the partial substitution of the above fresh MR by microwave devulcanized crumb rubber (dCR). TDVs were produced by continuous extrusion, and the effects of composition (PP/MR/dCR = 40/60/0…50/35/15) and processing parameters (different screw configurations, temperature profiles, the feeding method of PP) were investigated. Results showed that the fresh rubber compound can be replaced up to 10 wt % without compromising the mechanical properties of the resulting TDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dániel Ábel Simon
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - István Zoltán Halász
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - József Karger-Kocsis
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
- MTA-BME Research Group for Composite Science and Technology, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Tamás Bárány
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
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Relationship among Vulcanization, Mechanical Properties and Morphology of Blends Containing Recycled EPDM. RECYCLING 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/recycling2030016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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