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Smith SM, Heaney LR, Angielczyk KD. Small skeletons show size-specific scaling: an exploration of allometry in the mammalian lumbar spine. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20232868. [PMID: 38628132 PMCID: PMC11021941 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.2868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Studies of vertebrate bone biomechanics often focus on skeletal adaptations at upper extremes of body mass, disregarding the importance of skeletal adaptations at lower extremes. Yet mammals are ancestrally small and most modern species have masses under 5 kg, so the evolution of morphology and function at small size should be prioritized for understanding how mammals subsist. We examined allometric scaling of lumbar vertebrae in the small-bodied Philippine endemic rodents known as cloud rats, which vary in mass across two orders of magnitude (15.5 g-2700 g). External vertebral dimensions scale with isometry or positive allometry, likely relating to body size and nuances in quadrupedal posture. In contrast to most mammalian trabecular bone studies, bone volume fraction and trabecular thickness scale with positive allometry and isometry, respectively. It is physiologically impossible for these trends to continue to the upper extremes of mammalian body size, and we demonstrate a fundamental difference in trabecular bone allometry between large- and small-bodied mammals. These findings have important implications for the biomechanical capabilities of mammalian bone at small body size; for the selective pressures that govern skeletal evolution in small mammals; and for the way we define 'small' and 'large' in the context of vertebrate skeletons.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. M. Smith
- Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S DuSable Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, USA
| | - L. R. Heaney
- Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S DuSable Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, USA
| | - K. D. Angielczyk
- Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S DuSable Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, USA
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2
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Salmon PL, Monzem S, Javaheri B, Oste L, Kerckhofs G, Pitsillides AA. Resolving trabecular metaphyseal bone profiles downstream of the growth plate adds value to bone histomorphometry in mouse models. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1158099. [PMID: 37065740 PMCID: PMC10102859 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1158099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Histomorphometry of rodent metaphyseal trabecular bone, by histology or microCT, is generally restricted to the mature secondary spongiosa, excluding the primary spongiosa nearest the growth plate by imposing an 'offset'. This analyses the bulk static properties of a defined segment of secondary spongiosa, usually regardless of proximity to the growth plate. Here we assess the value of trabecular morphometry that is spatially resolved according to the distance 'downstream' of-and thus time since formation at-the growth plate. Pursuant to this, we also investigate the validity of including mixed primary-secondary spongiosal trabecular bone, extending the analysed volume 'upstream' by reducing the offset. Both the addition of spatiotemporal resolution and the extension of the analysed volume have potential to enhance the sensitivity of detection of trabecular changes and to resolve changes occurring at different times and locations. METHOD Two experimental mouse studies of trabecular bone are used as examples of different factors influencing metaphyseal trabecular bone: (1) ovariectomy (OVX) and pharmacological prevention of osteopenia and (2) limb disuse induced by sciatic neurectomy (SN). In a third study into offset rescaling, we also examine the relationship between age, tibia length, and primary spongiosal thickness. RESULTS Bone changes induced by either OVX or SN that were early or weak and marginal were more pronounced in the mixed primary-secondary upstream spongiosal region than in the downstream secondary spongiosa. A spatially resolved evaluation of the entire trabecular region found that significant differences between experimental and control bones remained undiminished either right up to or to within 100 μm from the growth plate. Intriguingly, our data revealed a remarkably linear downstream profile for fractal dimension in trabecular bone, arguing for an underlying homogeneity of the (re)modelling process throughout the entire metaphysis and against strict anatomical categorization into primary and secondary spongiosal regions. Finally, we find that a correlation between tibia length and primary spongiosal depth is well conserved except in very early and late life. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that the spatially resolved analysis of metaphyseal trabecular bone at different distances from the growth plate and/or times since formation adds a valuable dimension to histomorphometric analysis. They also question any rationale for rejecting primary spongiosal bone, in principle, from metaphyseal trabecular morphometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. L. Salmon
- Bruker Belgium (microCT), Preclinical Imaging, Kontich, Belgium
- *Correspondence: P. L. Salmon,
| | - S. Monzem
- Skeletal Biology Group, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - B. Javaheri
- Skeletal Biology Group, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - L. Oste
- Galapagos NV, Discovery DMPK, Mechelen, Belgium
| | - G. Kerckhofs
- Biomechanics Lab, Institute of Mechanics, Materials and Civil Engineering, Katholiek Universiteit van Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - A. A. Pitsillides
- Skeletal Biology Group, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
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Smith SM, Angielczyk KD. A shrewd inspection of vertebral regionalization in large shrews (Soricidae: Crocidurinae). Integr Org Biol 2022; 4:obac006. [PMID: 35291671 PMCID: PMC8915212 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obac006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The regionalization of the mammalian spinal column is an important evolutionary, developmental, and functional hallmark of the clade. Vertebral column regions are usually defined using transitions in external bone morphology, such as the presence of transverse foraminae or rib facets, or measurements of vertebral shape. Yet the internal structure of vertebrae, specifically the trabecular (spongy) bone, plays an important role in vertebral function, and is subject to the same variety of selective, functional, and developmental influences as external bone morphology. Here we investigated regionalization of external and trabecular bone morphology in the vertebral column of a group of shrews (family Soricidae). The primary goals of this study were to: 1) determine if vertebral trabecular bone morphology is regionalized in large shrews, and if so, in what configuration relative to external morphology; 2) assess correlations between trabecular bone regionalization and functional or developmental influences; and 3) determine if external and trabecular bone regionalization patterns provide clues about the function of the highly modified spinal column of the hero shrew Scutisorex.
Trabecular bone is regionalized along the soricid vertebral column, but the configuration of trabecular bone regions does not match that of the external vertebral morphology, and is less consistent across individuals and species. The cervical region has the most distinct and consistent trabecular bone morphology, with dense trabeculae indicative of the ability to withstand forces in a variety of directions. Scutisorex exhibits an additional external morphology region compared to unmodified shrews, but this region does not correspond to a change in trabecular architecture.
Although trabecular bone architecture is regionalized along the soricid vertebral column, and this regionalization is potentially related to bone functional adaptation, there are likely aspects of vertebral functional regionalization that are not detectable using trabecular bone morphology. For example, the external morphology of the Scutisorex lumbar spine shows signs of an extra functional region that is not apparent in trabecular bone analyses. It is possible that body size and locomotor mode affect the degree to which function is manifest in trabecular bone, and broader study across mammalian size and ecology is warranted to understand the relationship between trabecular bone morphology and other measures of vertebral function such as intervertebral range of motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M Smith
- Field Museum of Natural History, Negaunee Integrative Research Center, 1400 S DuSable Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605
| | - Kenneth D Angielczyk
- Field Museum of Natural History, Negaunee Integrative Research Center, 1400 S DuSable Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605
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4
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Webb NM. The Functional and Allometric Implications of Hipbone Trabecular Microarchitecture in a Sample of Eutherian and Metatherian Mammals. Evol Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-021-09543-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe pelvis plays an active role in weight bearing and countering the ground reaction forces incurred by the hindlimbs thus making it a critical component of the locomotor skeleton. Accordingly, this anatomical region is theoretically ideal for inferring locomotor behavior from both external skeletal morphology and trabecular microarchitecture, with the latter possibly offering nuanced insights into the mechanical loading environment given its increased plasticity and higher turnover rate. However, trabecular microarchitecture is also known to be influenced by a variety of factors including body size, sex, age, genetic regulation, diet and activity level, that collectively hinder the ability to generate consistent functional inferences. In this study, a comparative sample of mammals (42 species spanning four orders) of varying sizes, yet comparable locomotor repertoires, were evaluated to determine the effects of body size, phylogeny and locomotion on hipbone trabecular microarchitecture. This study found a weak functional signal detected in differences in bone volume fraction and the degree of anisotropy across certain pre-assigned locomotor categories, while confirming previously recognized allometric scaling trends reported for other mammalian samples based on the femur. Within primates, a more anisotropic pattern was observed for quadrupedal species attributed to their repetitive loading regimes and stereotypical limb excursions, while isotropic values were revealed for taxa utilizing more varied arboreal repertoires. Humans, despite a frequent and predictable loading environment associated with their use of bipedalism, showed relatively isotropic values. This study highlights the confounding factors that influence trabecular microarchitecture and consequently limit its utility as a method for investigating locomotor adaptation.
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Bird EE, Kivell TL, Skinner MM. Cortical and trabecular bone structure of the hominoid capitate. J Anat 2021; 239:351-373. [PMID: 33942895 PMCID: PMC8273598 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Morphological variation in the hominoid capitate has been linked to differences in habitual locomotor activity due to its importance in movement and load transfer at the midcarpal joint proximally and carpometacarpal joints distally. Although the shape of bones and their articulations are linked to joint mobility, the internal structure of bones has been shown experimentally to reflect, at least in part, the loading direction and magnitude experienced by the bone. To date, it is uncertain whether locomotor differences among hominoids are reflected in the bone microarchitecture of the capitate. Here, we apply a whole‐bone methodology to quantify the cortical and trabecular architecture (separately and combined) of the capitate across bipedal (modern Homo sapiens), knuckle‐walking (Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla sp.), and suspensory (Pongo sp.) hominoids (n = 69). It is hypothesized that variation in bone microarchitecture will differentiate these locomotor groups, reflecting differences in habitual postures and presumed loading force and direction. Additionally, it is hypothesized that trabecular and cortical architecture in the proximal and distal regions, as a result of being part of mechanically divergent joints proximally and distally, will differ across these portions of the capitate. Results indicate that the capitate of knuckle‐walking and suspensory hominoids is differentiated from bipedal Homo primarily by significantly thicker distal cortical bone. Knuckle‐walking taxa are further differentiated from suspensory and bipedal taxa by more isotropic trabeculae in the proximal capitate. An allometric analysis indicates that size is not a significant determinate of bone variation across hominoids, although sexual dimorphism may influence some parameters within Gorilla. Results suggest that internal trabecular and cortical bone is subjected to different forces and functional adaptation responses across the capitate (and possibly other short bones). Additionally, while separating trabecular and cortical bone is normal protocol of current whole‐bone methodologies, this study shows that when applied to carpals, removing or studying the cortical bone separately potentially obfuscates functionally relevant signals in bone structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma E Bird
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Tracy L Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Cazenave M, Oettlé A, Pickering TR, Heaton JL, Nakatsukasa M, Francis Thackeray J, Hoffman J, Macchiarelli R. Trabecular organization of the proximal femur in Paranthropus robustus: Implications for the assessment of its hip joint loading conditions. J Hum Evol 2021; 153:102964. [PMID: 33713985 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.102964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Reconstruction of the locomotor repertoire of the australopiths (Australopithecus and Paranthropus) has progressively integrated information from the mechanosensitive internal structure of the appendicular skeleton. Recent investigations showed that the arrangement of the trabecular network at the femoral head center is biomechanically compatible with the pattern of cortical bone distribution across the neck, both suggesting a full commitment to bipedalism in australopiths, but associated with a slightly altered gait kinematics compared to Homo involving more lateral deviation of the body center of mass over the stance limb. To provide a global picture in Paranthropus robustus of the trabecular architecture of the proximal femur across the head, neck and greater trochanter compartments, we applied techniques of virtual imaging to the variably preserved Early Pleistocene specimens SK 82, SK 97, SK 3121, SKW 19 and SWT1/LB-2 from the cave site of Swartkrans, South Africa. We also assessed the coherence between the structural signals from the center of the head and those from the trabecular network of the inferolateral portion of the head and the inferior margin of the neck, sampling the so-called vertical bundle, which in humans represents the principal compressive system of the joint. Our analyses show a functionally related trabecular organization in Pa. robustus that closely resembles the extant human condition, but which also includes some specificities in local textural arrangement. The network of the inferolateral portion of the head shows a humanlike degree of anisotropy and a bone volume fraction intermediate between the extant human and the African ape patterns. These results suggest slight differences in gait kinematics between Pa. robustus and extant humans. The neck portion of the vertical bundle revealed a less biomechanically sensitive signal. Future investigations on the australopith hip joint loading environment should more carefully investigate the trabecular structure of the trochanteric region and possible structural covariation between cortical bone distribution across the neck and site-specific trabecular properties of the arcuate bundle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Cazenave
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.
| | - Anna Oettlé
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Ga-Rankuwa, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Travis Rayne Pickering
- Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA; Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Plio-Pleistocene Palaeontology Section, Department of Vertebrates, Ditsong National Museum of Natural History (Transvaal Museum), Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jason L Heaton
- Department of Biology, Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, USA; Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Plio-Pleistocene Palaeontology Section, Department of Vertebrates, Ditsong National Museum of Natural History (Transvaal Museum), Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Masato Nakatsukasa
- Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - J Francis Thackeray
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Jakobus Hoffman
- South African Nuclear Energy Corporation SOC Ltd., Pelindaba, South Africa
| | - Roberto Macchiarelli
- Département Homme & Environnement, UMR 7194 CNRS, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, 75116, Paris, France; Unité de Formation Géosciences, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
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7
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Addison BJ, Lieberman DE. Assessing patterns of variation in BV/TV in the calcaneus and C2 vertebra of Gorilla gorilla, Pan troglodytes, and populations of Homo sapiens from the Pleistocene and Holocene that differ in physical activity levels. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2021; 173:337-349. [PMID: 33448347 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Because trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV) is influenced by variations in physical activity recent declines in BV/TV in humans are often attributed to modern sedentary lifestyles. This study tests the hypothesis that presumed variations in mechanical loading between groups can predict the observed BV/TV patterns in humans, chimpanzees and gorillas in two bones: the calcaneus which experiences high and well characterized impact forces, and the C2 vertebrae which experiences reduced locomotor forces. MATERIALS AND METHODS BV/TV and other structural variables were quantified from high-resolution microCT scans in gorillas, chimpanzees, and four Homo sapiens populations: Pleistocene, semi-sedentary Natufians; Holocene hunter-gatherers from Point Hope, Alaska; Holocene nomadic pastoralists from medieval Europe; and modern, sedentary Americans. RESULTS In the calcaneal tuberosity, Natufian BV/TV was 36, 46, and 46% greater than Alaskans (p = .02), Europeans (p = .005) and modern Americans (p = .002), respectively, but not significantly different from apes. BV/TV was not significantly different between modern Americans and Alaskans or Europeans. In the C2, Natufian BV/TV was 53 and 25% greater than in the Alaskan (p = .0001) and European (p = .048) populations. DISCUSSION These results suggest that phenomena other than or in addition to variations in physical activity are needed to explain BV/TV patterns observed in H. sapiens, and point to a systemic decline in H. sapiens BV/TV after the Pleistocene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Addison
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Daniel E Lieberman
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States
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8
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Saers JP, Ryan TM, Stock JT. Trabecular bone structure scales allometrically in the foot of four human groups. J Hum Evol 2019; 135:102654. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.102654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Plasse M, Amson E, Bardin J, Grimal Q, Germain D. Trabecular architecture in the humeral metaphyses of non-avian reptiles (Crocodylia, Squamata and Testudines): Lifestyle, allometry and phylogeny. J Morphol 2019; 280:982-998. [PMID: 31090239 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The lifestyle of extinct tetrapods is often difficult to assess when clear morphological adaptations such as swimming paddles are absent. According to the hypothesis of bone functional adaptation, the architecture of trabecular bone adapts sensitively to physiological loadings. Previous studies have already shown a clear relation between trabecular architecture and locomotor behavior, mainly in mammals and birds. However, a link between trabecular architecture and lifestyle has rarely been examined. Here, we analyzed trabecular architecture of different clades of reptiles characterized by a wide range of lifestyles (aquatic, amphibious, generalist terrestrial, fossorial, and climbing). Humeri of squamates, turtles, and crocodylians have been scanned with microcomputed tomography. We selected spherical volumes of interest centered in the proximal metaphyses and measured trabecular spacing, thickness and number, degree of anisotropy, average branch length, bone volume fraction, bone surface density, and connectivity density. Only bone volume fraction showed a significant phylogenetic signal and its significant difference between squamates and other reptiles could be linked to their physiologies. We found negative allometric relationships for trabecular thickness and spacing, positive allometries for connectivity density and trabecular number and no dependence with size for degree of anisotropy and bone volume fraction. The different lifestyles are well separated in the morphological space using linear discriminant analyses, but a cross-validation procedure indicated a limited predictive ability of the model. The trabecular bone anisotropy has shown a gradient in turtles and in squamates: higher values in amphibious than terrestrial taxa. These allometric scalings, previously emphasized in mammals and birds, seem to be valid for all amniotes. Discriminant analysis has offered, to some extent, a distinction of lifestyles, which however remains difficult to strictly discriminate. Trabecular architecture seems to be a promising tool to infer lifestyle of extinct tetrapods, especially those involved in the terrestrialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martial Plasse
- Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, UMR 7207 - CR2P-CNRS-MNHN-Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.,INSERM UMR S 1146, CNRS UMR 7371, Laboratoire d'Imagerie Biomédicale, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Eli Amson
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitatsforschung, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jérémie Bardin
- UMR 7207 - CR2P-CNRS-MNHN- Sorbonne Université, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Quentin Grimal
- INSERM UMR S 1146, CNRS UMR 7371, Laboratoire d'Imagerie Biomédicale, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Damien Germain
- Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, UMR 7207 - CR2P-CNRS-MNHN-Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
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10
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Georgiou L, Kivell TL, Pahr DH, Buck LT, Skinner MM. Trabecular architecture of the great ape and human femoral head. J Anat 2019; 234:679-693. [PMID: 30793309 PMCID: PMC6481414 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of femoral trabecular structure have shown that the orientation and volume of bone are associated with variation in loading and could be informative about individual joint positioning during locomotion. In this study, we analyse for the first time trabecular bone patterns throughout the femoral head using a whole-epiphysis approach to investigate how potential trabecular variation in humans and great apes relates to differences in locomotor modes. Trabecular architecture was analysed using microCT scans of Pan troglodytes (n = 20), Gorilla gorilla (n = 14), Pongo sp. (n = 5) and Homo sapiens (n = 12) in medtool 4.1. Our results revealed differences in bone volume fraction (BV/TV) distribution patterns, as well as overall trabecular parameters of the femoral head between great apes and humans. Pan and Gorilla showed two regions of high BV/TV in the femoral head, consistent with hip posture and loading during two discrete locomotor modes: knuckle-walking and climbing. Most Pongo specimens also displayed two regions of high BV/TV, but these regions were less discrete and there was more variability across the sample. In contrast, Homo showed only one main region of high BV/TV in the femoral head and had the lowest BV/TV, as well as the most anisotropic trabeculae. The Homo trabecular structure is consistent with stereotypical loading with a more extended hip compared with great apes, which is characteristic of modern human bipedalism. Our results suggest that holistic evaluations of femoral head trabecular architecture can reveal previously undetected patterns linked to locomotor behaviour in extant apes and can provide further insight into hip joint loading in fossil hominins and other primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leoni Georgiou
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute for Lightweight Design and Structural BiomechanicsVienna University of TechnologyViennaAustria
- Department of Anatomy and BiomechanicsKarl Landsteiner Private University of Health SciencesKrems an der DonauAustria
| | - Laura T. Buck
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCAUSA
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
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11
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Russo GA. Trabecular Bone Structural Variation in the Proximal Sacrum Among Primates. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 302:1354-1371. [PMID: 30315635 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The sacrum occupies a functionally important anatomical position as part of the pelvic girdle and vertebral column. Sacral orientation and external morphology in modern humans are distinct from those in other primates and compatible with the demands of habitual bipedal locomotion. Among nonhuman primates, however, how sacral anatomy relates to positional behaviors is less clear. As an alternative to evaluation of the sacrum's external morphology, this study assesses if the sacrum's internal morphology (i.e., trabecular bone) differs among extant primates. The primary hypothesis tested is that trabecular bone parameters with established functional relevance will differ in the first sacral vertebra (S1) among extant primates that vary in positional behaviors. Results for analyses of individual variables demonstrate that bone volume fraction, degree of anisotropy, trabecular number, and size-corrected trabecular thickness differ among primates grouped by positional behaviors to some extent, but not always in ways consistent with functional expectations. When examined as a suite, these trabecular parameters distinguish obligate bipeds from other positional behavior groups; and, the latter three trabecular bone variables further distinguish knuckle-walking terrestrial quadrupeds from manual suspensor-brachiators, vertical clingers and leapers, and arboreal quadrupeds, as well as between arboreal and terrestrial quadrupeds. As in other regions of the skeleton in modern humans, trabecular bone in S1 exhibits distinctively low bone volume fraction. Results from this study of extant primate S1 trabecular bone structural variation provide a functional context for interpretations concerning the positional behaviors of extinct primates based on internal sacral morphology. Anat Rec, 302:1354-1371, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle A Russo
- Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
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12
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Tsegai ZJ, Skinner MM, Pahr DH, Hublin JJ, Kivell TL. Ontogeny and variability of trabecular bone in the chimpanzee humerus, femur and tibia. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 167:713-736. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zewdi J. Tsegai
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Leipzig Germany
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Center; School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent; Canterbury United Kingdom
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Leipzig Germany
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute for Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics; Vienna University of Technology; Wien Austria
| | - Jean-Jacques Hublin
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Leipzig Germany
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Center; School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent; Canterbury United Kingdom
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Leipzig Germany
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Kivell TL, Davenport R, Hublin JJ, Thackeray JF, Skinner MM. Trabecular architecture and joint loading of the proximal humerus in extant hominoids, Ateles, and Australopithecus africanus. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 167:348-365. [PMID: 30129074 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Several studies have investigated potential functional signals in the trabecular structure of the primate proximal humerus but with varied success. Here, we apply for the first time a "whole-epiphyses" approach to analysing trabecular bone in the humeral head with the aim of providing a more holistic interpretation of trabecular variation in relation to habitual locomotor or manipulative behaviors in several extant primates and Australopithecus africanus. MATERIALS AND METHODS We use a "whole-epiphysis" methodology in comparison to the traditional volume of interest (VOI) approach to investigate variation in trabecular structure and joint loading in the proximal humerus of extant hominoids, Ateles and A. africanus (StW 328). RESULTS There are important differences in the quantification of trabecular parameters using a "whole-epiphysis" versus a VOI-based approach. Variation in trabecular structure across knuckle-walking African apes, suspensory taxa, and modern humans was generally consistent with predictions of load magnitude and inferred joint posture during habitual behaviors. Higher relative trabecular bone volume and more isotropic trabeculae in StW 328 suggest A. africanus may have still used its forelimbs for arboreal locomotion. DISCUSSION A whole-epiphysis approach to analysing trabecular structure of the proximal humerus can help distinguish functional signals of joint loading across extant primates and can provide novel insight into habitual behaviors of fossil hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy L Kivell
- School of Anthropology and Conservation, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Rebecca Davenport
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Jacques Hublin
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - J Francis Thackeray
- Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- School of Anthropology and Conservation, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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14
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Georgiou L, Kivell TL, Pahr DH, Skinner MM. Trabecular bone patterning in the hominoid distal femur. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5156. [PMID: 30002981 PMCID: PMC6035864 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In addition to external bone shape and cortical bone thickness and distribution, the distribution and orientation of internal trabecular bone across individuals and species has yielded important functional information on how bone adapts in response to load. In particular, trabecular bone analysis has played a key role in studies of human and nonhuman primate locomotion and has shown that species with different locomotor repertoires display distinct trabecular architecture in various regions of the skeleton. In this study, we analyse trabecular structure throughout the distal femur of extant hominoids and test for differences due to locomotor loading regime. METHODS Micro-computed tomography scans of Homo sapiens (n = 11), Pan troglodytes (n = 18), Gorilla gorilla (n = 14) and Pongo sp. (n = 7) were used to investigate trabecular structure throughout the distal epiphysis of the femur. We predicted that bone volume fraction (BV/TV) in the medial and lateral condyles in Homo would be distally concentrated and more anisotropic due to a habitual extended knee posture at the point of peak ground reaction force during bipedal locomotion, whereas great apes would show more posteriorly concentrated BV/TV and greater isotropy due to a flexed knee posture and more variable hindlimb use during locomotion. RESULTS Results indicate some significant differences between taxa, with the most prominent being higher BV/TV in the posterosuperior region of the condyles in Pan and higher BV/TV and anisotropy in the posteroinferior region in Homo. Furthermore, trabecular number, spacing and thickness differ significantly, mainly separating Gorilla from the other apes. DISCUSSION The trabecular architecture of the distal femur holds a functional signal linked to habitual behaviour; however, there was more similarity across taxa and greater intraspecific variability than expected. Specifically, there was a large degree of overlap in trabecular structure across the sample, and Homo was not as distinct as predicted. Nonetheless, this study offers a comparative sample of trabecular structure in the hominoid distal femur and can contribute to future studies of locomotion in extinct taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leoni Georgiou
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbury, Kent, UK
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbury, Kent, UK
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute for Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Karl Landsteiner Private University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbury, Kent, UK
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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15
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Tsegai ZJ, Skinner MM, Pahr DH, Hublin J, Kivell TL. Systemic patterns of trabecular bone across the human and chimpanzee skeleton. J Anat 2018; 232:641-656. [PMID: 29344941 PMCID: PMC5835784 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspects of trabecular bone architecture are thought to reflect regional loading of the skeleton, and thus differ between primate taxa with different locomotor and postural modes. However, there are several systemic factors that affect bone structure that could contribute to, or be the primary factor determining, interspecific differences in bone structure. These systemic factors include differences in genetic regulation, sensitivity to loading, hormone levels, diet, and activity levels. Improved understanding of inter-/intraspecific variability, and variability across the skeleton of an individual, is required to interpret properly potential functional signals present within trabecular structure. Using a whole-region method of analysis, we investigated trabecular structure throughout the skeleton of humans and chimpanzees. Trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV), degree of anisotropy (DA) and trabecular thickness (Tb.Th) were quantified from high resolution micro-computed tomographic scans of the humeral and femoral head, third metacarpal and third metatarsal head, distal tibia, talus and first thoracic vertebra. We found that BV/TV is, in most anatomical sites, significantly higher in chimpanzees than in humans, suggesting a systemic difference in trabecular structure unrelated to local loading regime. Differences in BV/TV between the forelimb and hindlimb did not clearly reflect differences in locomotor loading in the study taxa. There were no clear systemic differences between the taxa in DA and, as such, this parameter might reflect function and relate to differences in joint loading. This systemic approach reveals both the pattern of variability across the skeleton and between taxa, and helps identify those features of trabecular structure that may relate to joint function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zewdi J. Tsegai
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural BiomechanicsVienna University of TechnologyViennaAustria
| | - Jean‐Jacques Hublin
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
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16
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Barak MM, Sherratt E, Lieberman DE. Using principal trabecular orientation to differentiate joint loading orientation in the 3rd metacarpal heads of humans and chimpanzees. J Hum Evol 2017; 113:173-182. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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17
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Best A, Holt B, Troy K, Hamill J. Trabecular bone in the calcaneus of runners. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0188200. [PMID: 29141022 PMCID: PMC5687755 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Trabecular bone of the human calcaneus is subjected to extreme repetitive forces during endurance running and should adapt in response to this strain. To assess possible bone functional adaptation in the posterior region of the calcaneus, we recruited forefoot-striking runners (n = 6), rearfoot-striking runners (n = 6), and non-runners (n = 6), all males aged 20-41 for this institutionally approved study. Foot strike pattern was confirmed for each runner using a motion capture system. We obtained high resolution peripheral computed tomography scans of the posterior calcaneus for both runners and non-runners. No statistically significant differences were found between runners and nonrunners or forefoot strikers and rearfoot strikers. Mean trabecular thickness and mineral density were greatest in forefoot runners with strong effect sizes (<0.80). Trabecular thickness was positively correlated with weekly running distance (r2 = 0.417, p<0.05) and years running (r2 = 0.339, p<0.05) and negatively correlated with age at onset of running (r2 = 0.515, p<0.01) Trabecular thickness, mineral density and bone volume ratio of nonrunners were highly correlated with body mass (r2 = 0.824, p<0.05) and nonrunners were significantly heavier than runners (p<0.05). Adjusting for body mass revealed significantly thicker trabeculae in the posterior calcaneus of forefoot strikers, likely an artifact of greater running volume and earlier onset of running in this subgroup; thus, individuals with the greatest summative loading stimulus had, after body mass adjustment, the thickest trabeculae. Further study with larger sample sizes is necessary to elucidate the role of footstrike on calcaneal trabecular structure. To our knowledge, intraspecific body mass correlations with measures of trabecular robusticity have not been reported elsewhere. We hypothesize that early adoption of running and years of sustained moderate volume running stimulate bone modeling in trabeculae of the posterior calcaneus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Best
- Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Brigitte Holt
- Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Karen Troy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Joseph Hamill
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
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18
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Nishimura AC, Russo GA. Does cortical bone thickness in the last sacral vertebra differ among tail types in primates? AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 162:757-767. [PMID: 28075029 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The external morphology of the sacrum is demonstrably informative regarding tail type (i.e., tail presence/absence, length, and prehensility) in living and extinct primates. However, little research has focused on the relationship between tail type and internal sacral morphology, a potentially important source of functional information when fossil sacra are incomplete. Here, we determine if cortical bone cross-sectional thickness of the last sacral vertebral body differs among tail types in extant primates and can be used to reconstruct tail types in extinct primates. MATERIALS AND METHODS Cortical bone cross-sectional thickness in the last sacral vertebral body was measured from high-resolution CT scans belonging to 20 extant primate species (N = 72) assigned to tail type categories ("tailless," "nonprehensile short-tailed," "nonprehensile long-tailed," and "prehensile-tailed"). The extant dataset was then used to reconstruct the tail types for four extinct primate species. RESULTS Tailless primates had significantly thinner cortical bone than tail-bearing primates. Nonprehensile short-tailed primates had significantly thinner cortical bone than nonprehensile long-tailed primates. Cortical bone cross-sectional thickness did not distinguish between prehensile-tailed and nonprehensile long-tailed taxa. Results are strongly influenced by phylogeny. Corroborating previous studies, Epipliopithecus vindobonensis was reconstructed as tailless, Archaeolemur edwardsi as long-tailed, Megaladapis grandidieri as nonprehensile short-tailed, and Palaeopropithecus kelyus as nonprehensile short-tailed or tailless. CONCLUSIONS Results indicate that, in the context of phylogenetic clade, measures of cortical bone cross-sectional thickness can be used to allocate extinct primate species to tail type categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail C Nishimura
- Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, 11794
| | - Gabrielle A Russo
- Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, 11794
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19
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Saers JPP, Cazorla-Bak Y, Shaw CN, Stock JT, Ryan TM. Trabecular bone structural variation throughout the human lower limb. J Hum Evol 2016; 97:97-108. [PMID: 27457548 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Trabecular bone is responsive to mechanical loading, and thus may be a useful tool for interpreting past behaviour from fossil morphology. However, the ability to meaningfully interpret variation in archaeological and hominin trabecular morphology depends on the extent to which trabecular bone properties are integrated throughout the postcranium or are locally variable in response to joint specific loading. We investigate both of these factors by comparing trabecular bone throughout the lower limb between a group of highly mobile foragers and two groups of sedentary agriculturalists. Trabecular bone structure is quantified in four volumes of interest placed within the proximal and distal joints of the femur and tibia. We determine how trabecular structures correspond to inferred behavioural differences between populations and whether the patterns are consistent throughout the limb. A significant correlation was found between inferred mobility level and trabecular bone structure in all volumes of interest along the lower limb. The greater terrestrial mobility of foragers is associated with higher bone volume fraction, and thicker and fewer trabeculae (lower connectivity density). In all populations, bone volume fraction decreases while anisotropy increases proximodistally throughout the lower limb. This observation mirrors reductions in cortical bone mass resulting from proximodistal limb tapering. The reduction in strength associated with reduced bone volume fraction may be compensated for by the increased anisotropy in the distal tibia. A similar pattern of trabecular structure is found throughout the lower limb in all populations, upon which a signal of terrestrial mobility appears to be superimposed. These results support the validity of using lower limb trabecular bone microstructure to reconstruct terrestrial mobility levels from the archaeological and fossil records. The results further indicate that care should be taken to appreciate variation resulting from differences in habitual activity when inferring behaviour from the trabecular structure of hominin fossils through comparisons with modern humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaap P P Saers
- PAVE Research Group, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Yasmin Cazorla-Bak
- PAVE Research Group, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Colin N Shaw
- PAVE Research Group, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jay T Stock
- PAVE Research Group, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy M Ryan
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, State College PA, 322 Carpenter Building, United States; Center for Quantitative Imaging, EMS Energy Institute, Pennsylvania State University, State College PA, University Park, PA 16802, United States
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20
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Kivell TL. A review of trabecular bone functional adaptation: what have we learned from trabecular analyses in extant hominoids and what can we apply to fossils? J Anat 2016; 228:569-94. [PMID: 26879841 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Many of the unresolved debates in palaeoanthropology regarding evolution of particular locomotor or manipulative behaviours are founded in differing opinions about the functional significance of the preserved external fossil morphology. However, the plasticity of internal bone morphology, and particularly trabecular bone, allowing it to respond to mechanical loading during life means that it can reveal greater insight into how a bone or joint was used during an individual's lifetime. Analyses of trabecular bone have been commonplace for several decades in a human clinical context. In contrast, the study of trabecular bone as a method for reconstructing joint position, joint loading and ultimately behaviour in extant and fossil non-human primates is comparatively new. Since the initial 2D studies in the late 1970s and 3D analyses in the 1990 s, the utility of trabecular bone to reconstruct behaviour in primates has grown to incorporate experimental studies, expanded taxonomic samples and skeletal elements, and improved methodologies. However, this work, in conjunction with research on humans and non-primate mammals, has also revealed the substantial complexity inherent in making functional inferences from variation in trabecular architecture. This review addresses the current understanding of trabecular bone functional adaptation, how it has been applied to hominoids, as well as other primates and, ultimately, how this can be used to better interpret fossil hominoid and hominin morphology. Because the fossil record constrains us to interpreting function largely from bony morphology alone, and typically from isolated bones, analyses of trabecular structure, ideally in conjunction with that of cortical structure and external morphology, can offer the best resource for reconstructing behaviour in the past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy L Kivell
- Animal Postcranial Evolution Laboratory, Skeletal Biological Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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21
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Comparative sacral morphology and the reconstructed tail lengths of five extinct primates: Proconsul heseloni, Epipliopithecus vindobonensis, Archaeolemur edwardsi, Megaladapis grandidieri, and Palaeopropithecus kelyus. J Hum Evol 2016; 90:135-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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22
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Xu H, Gu S, Riquelme MA, Burra S, Callaway D, Cheng H, Guda T, Schmitz J, Fajardo RJ, Werner SL, Zhao H, Shang P, Johnson ML, Bonewald LF, Jiang JX. Connexin 43 channels are essential for normal bone structure and osteocyte viability. J Bone Miner Res 2015; 30:436-48. [PMID: 25270829 PMCID: PMC4333056 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.2374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Connexin (Cx) 43 serves important roles in bone function and development. Targeted deletion of Cx43 in osteoblasts or osteocytes leads to increased osteocyte apoptosis, osteoclast recruitment, and reduced biomechanical properties. Cx43 forms both gap junction channels and hemichannels, which mediate the communication between adjacent cells or between cell and extracellular environments, respectively. Two transgenic mouse models driven by a DMP1 promoter with the overexpression of dominant negative Cx43 mutants were generated to dissect the functional contribution of Cx43 gap junction channels and hemichannels in osteocytes. The R76W mutant blocks the gap junction channel, but not the hemichannel function, and the Δ130-136 mutant inhibits activity of both types of channels. Δ130-136 mice showed a significant increase in bone mineral density compared to wild-type (WT) and R76W mice. Micro-computed tomography (µCT) analyses revealed a significant increase in total tissue and bone area in midshaft cortical bone of Δ130-136 mice. The bone marrow cavity was expanded, whereas the cortical thickness was increased and associated with increased bone formation along the periosteal area. However, there is no significant alteration in the structure of trabecular bone. Histologic sections of the midshaft showed increased apoptotic osteocytes in Δ130-136, but not in WT and R76W, mice which correlated with altered biomechanical and estimated bone material properties. Osteoclasts were increased along the endocortical surface in both transgenic mice with a greater effect in Δ130-136 mice that likely contributed to the increased marrow cavity. Interestingly, the overall expression of serum bone formation and resorption markers were higher in R76W mice. These findings suggest that osteocytic Cx43 channels play distinctive roles in the bone; hemichannels play a dominant role in regulating osteocyte survival, endocortical bone resorption, and periosteal apposition, and gap junction communication is involved in the process of bone remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiyun Xu
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xian, China
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Sumin Gu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Manuel A. Riquelme
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Sirisha Burra
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Danielle Callaway
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Hongyun Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Teja Guda
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, Texas
| | - James Schmitz
- Department of Orthopedics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Roberto J. Fajardo
- Department of Orthopedics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Sherry L. Werner
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Hong Zhao
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO
| | - Peng Shang
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xian, China
| | - Mark L. Johnson
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO
| | - Lynda F. Bonewald
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO
| | - Jean X. Jiang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas
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Christen P, Ito K, van Rietbergen B. A potential mechanism for allometric trabecular bone scaling in terrestrial mammals. J Anat 2015; 226:236-43. [PMID: 25655770 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Trabecular bone microstructural parameters, including trabecular thickness, spacing, and number, have been reported to scale with animal size with negative allometry, whereas bone volume fraction is animal size-invariant in terrestrial mammals. As for the majority of scaling patterns described in animals, its underlying mechanism is unknown. However, it has also been found that osteocyte density is inversely related to animal size, possibly adapted to metabolic rate, which shows a negative relationship as well. In addition, the signalling reach of osteocytes is limited by the extent of the lacuno-canalicular network, depending on trabecular dimensions and thus also on animal size. Here we propose animal size-dependent variations in osteocyte density and their signalling influence distance as a potential mechanism for negative allometric trabecular bone scaling in terrestrial mammals. Using an established and tested computational model of bone modelling and remodelling, we run simulations with different osteocyte densities and influence distances mimicking six terrestrial mammals covering a large range of body masses. Simulated trabecular structures revealed negative allometric scaling for trabecular thickness, spacing, and number, constant bone volume fraction, and bone turnover rates inversely related to animal size. These results are in agreement with previous observations supporting our proposal of osteocyte density and influence distance variation as a potential mechanism for negative allometric trabecular bone scaling in terrestrial mammals. The inverse relationship between bone turnover rates and animal size further indicates that trabecular bone scaling may be linked to metabolic rather than mechanical adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Christen
- Orthopaedic Biomechanics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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24
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Schilling AM, Tofanelli S, Hublin JJ, Kivell TL. Trabecular bone structure in the primate wrist. J Morphol 2013; 275:572-85. [PMID: 24323904 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Revised: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Trabecular (or cancellous) bone has been shown to respond to mechanical loading throughout ontogeny and thus can provide unique insight into skeletal function and locomotion in comparative studies of living and fossil mammalian morphology. Trabecular bone of the hand may be particularly functionally informative because the hand has more direct contact with the substrate compared with the remainder of the forelimb during locomotion in quadrupedal mammals. This study investigates the trabecular structure within the wrist across a sample of haplorhine primates that vary in locomotor behaviour (and thus hand use) and body size. High-resolution microtomographic scans were collected of the lunate, scaphoid, and capitate in 41 individuals and eight genera (Homo, Gorilla, Pan, Papio, Pongo, Symphalangus, Hylobates, and Ateles). We predicted that particular trabecular parameters would 1) vary across suspensory, quadrupedal, and bipedal primates based on differences in hand use and load, and 2) scale with carpal size following similar allometric patterns found previously in other skeletal elements across a larger sample of mammals and primates. Analyses of variance (trabecular parameters analysed separately) and principal component analyses (trabecular parameters analysed together) revealed no clear functional signal in the trabecular structure of any of the three wrist bones. Instead, there was a large degree of variation within suspensory and quadrupedal locomotor groups, as well as high intrageneric variation within some taxa, particularly Pongo and Gorilla. However, as predicted, Homo sapiens, which rarely use their hands for locomotion and weight support, were unique in showing lower relative bone volume (BV/TV) compared with all other taxa. Furthermore, parameters used to quantify trabecular structure within the wrist scale with size generally following similar allometric patterns found in trabeculae of other mammalian skeletal elements. We discuss the challenges associated with quantifying and interpreting trabecular bone within the wrist.
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