Human T lymphocytes express a member of the Matrix Metalloproteinase gene family

Human female genital tract infection by the obligate intracellular bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis elicits robust Type 2 immunity

While Chlamydia trachomatis infections are frequently asymptomatic, mechanisms that regulate host response to this intracellular Gram-negative bacterium remain undefined. This investigation thus used peripheral blood mononuclear cells and endometrial tissue from women with or without Chlamydia genital tract infection to better define this response. Initial genome-wide microarray analysis revealed highly elevated expression of matrix metalloproteinase 10 and other molecules characteristic of Type 2 immunity (e.g., fibrosis and wound repair) in Chlamydia-infected tissue. This result was corroborated in flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry studies that showed extant upper genital tract Chlamydia infection was associated with increased co-expression of CD200 receptor and CD206 (markers of alternative macrophage activation) by endometrial macrophages as well as increased expression of GATA-3 (the transcription factor regulating T_H2 differentiation) by endometrial CD4⁺ T cells. Also among women with genital tract Chlamydia infection, peripheral CD3⁺ CD4⁺ and CD3⁺ CD4^- cells that proliferated in response to ex vivo stimulation with inactivated chlamydial antigen secreted significantly more interleukin (IL)-4 than tumor necrosis factor, interferon-γ, or IL-17; findings that repeated in T cells isolated from these same women 1 and 4 months after infection had been eradicated. Our results thus newly reveal that genital infection by an obligate intracellular bacterium induces polarization towards Type 2 immunity, including Chlamydia-specific T_H2 development. Based on these findings, we now speculate that Type 2 immunity was selected by evolution as the host response to C. trachomatis in the human female genital tract to control infection and minimize immunopathological damage to vital reproductive structures.

Stromelysin-2 (Matrix Metalloproteinase 10) Is Inducible in Lymphoma Cells and Accelerates the Growth of Lymphoid Tumors In Vivo

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 10 (stromelysin-2) is known to degrade various components of the extracellular matrix; however, the signals that regulate its expression and its role in lymphoma growth remain unknown. In the present work, we report the up-regulated expression of MMP10 in T lymphoma cells following contact with endothelial cells. The induction of MMP10 was found to be dependent on the specific interaction between LFA-1 and ICAM-1, which play a central role in regulating the expression of genes involved in the rate-limiting steps of lymphoma development. MMP10, but not MMP3 (stromelysin-1), was also up-regulated in human B lymphoma cells following exposure to IL-4, IL-6, and IL-13, but not to IL-1. To gain further insight into the role of MMP10 in lymphoma development, we generated lymphoma cell lines constitutively expressing high levels of MMP10 and studied these cells for their ability to form thymic lymphoma in vivo. Mice injected with lymphoma cells constitutively expressing MMP10 developed thymic lymphoma more rapidly than those injected with control lymphoma cells. These results provide the first in vivo evidence that overexpression of MMP10 promotes tumor development, and indicate that MMP10 induction is an important pathway activated not only upon ICAM-1/LFA-1-mediated intercellular contact, but also following activation of tumor cells with inflammatory cytokines.

Increased ability of peripheral blood lymphocytes to degrade laminin in multiple sclerosis

T lymphocytes and macrophages probably play a role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS), and migration of these cells into the central nervous system is facilitated by disruption of the capillary basement membrane. Laminin is a major extracellular matrix of the basement membrane. To investigate whether ability of lymphocytes to degrade laminin correlates with disease activity in MS, we conducted a prospective study in consecutive 24 MS patients. A novel quantitative assay was developed to estimate the ability of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) to degrade laminin. The assay was performed every four weeks over a period of 12 months. During the study period, a total of 41 relapses were observed. The ability to degrade laminin was significantly higher in MS patients, even during clinical remission, than in normal and neurological controls, and was transiently increased further within 4 weeks before relapse (p=0.076). In MS, the ability of peripheral blood lymphocytes to degrade laminin increases, and may correlate with disease activity.

Adhesion molecules and matrix metalloproteinases in Multiple Sclerosis: effects induced by Interferon-beta

In Multiple Sclerosis (MS) pathology, early inflammation involves leukocyte migration across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) within the central nervous system. In this process, adhesion molecules (AMs), both membrane-bound and soluble-circulating forms, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) certainly play a regulatory role. In MS, recombinant Interferon-beta (rIFNbeta) is effective in reducing gadolinium contrast-enhancing lesions on magnetic resonance imaging and this suggests that it may reduce BBB damage or even restore its integrity by different mechanisms that include interference with both AM and MMP pathways. This review will highlight the effects induced by rIFNbeta, both in vitro and in vivo, on cell-bound and soluble forms of AMs and on MMPs.

Up-regulation of MMP-8 and MMP-9 activity in the BALB/c mouse spinal cord correlates with the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Induction of EAE can be inhibited or repressed by administration of soluble metalloproteinase inhibitors. We studied the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and their tissue inhibitor (TIMP) expression pattern in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) of the resistant Th2 prone BALB/c mouse, where the disease can be induced with ultrasound-emulsified antigen/adjuvant (son-ag), but not with conventional technique (syr-ag). We found highly elevated expression of MMP-8 (neutrophil collagenase) mRNA and protein in diseased son-ag challenged mice, colocalizing to neutrophil infiltrates found in brain and extensively in the spinal cord submeningeal space. MMP-8 expression has not been found previously in sensitive mouse strains. The infiltrates stained positive also for MMP-9 protein, and brain homogenates from corresponding mice showed MMP-9 activity during overt disease (days 12-16 post-immunization). TIMP-1 gene expression could be detected in CNS samples from diseased son-ag challenged mice but not in syr-ag or control mice, and the TIMP-1 protein colocalized with GFAP-staining. In contrast, in syr-ag mice both TIMP-2 and TIMP-3 gene expression in the spinal cords was elevated. The results show that sonication, but not extrusion, creates an adjuvant formula potent in activating the matrix metalloproteinase cascade similar to sensitive mouse strains, strongly implicating their role in EAE induction in this Th2 prone strain. The study provides the basis for establishment of MMP-specific therapy in this model.

The effect of prinomastat (AG3340), a synthetic inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases, on uveal melanoma rabbit model

PURPOSE

We studied the effects of intravitreally administered prinomastat on the take rate and growth of uveal melanoma after xenograft implantation in rabbit uveal melanoma model.

METHODS

Uveal melanoma xenograft was implanted to suprachoroidal space in each eye of 24 pigmented rabbits which were immunosuppressed with cyclosporine. One week after surgery, the eyes were randomized to receive prinomastat or the vehicle of the prinomastat intravitreally every week for 4 weeks. The take rate of the xenograft, tumor height, apoptosis, and necrosis in the eyes which developed tumors from the treatment and control groups were compared.

RESULTS

A tumor mass was identified in 8 of 24 (33%) prinomastat-treated eyes and 20 of 24 (83%) of the vehicle-treated eyes. Echographic measurements revealed a mean tumor height of 2.2 mm in the prinomastat-treated group and 3.8 mm in the control group in those eyes with take of tumor (p < 0.001). Stereomicroscopic measurements showed a mean tumor height of 1.9 mm in the treatment group and 3.9 mm in the control group (p < 0.001). The mean number of apoptotic nuclei detected per mm(2) of the histologic section in the non-necrotic tumor was 8.12 in the prinomastat-treated group and 0.57 in the control group (p < 0.001). Evaluation of the digital images in microscopic sections of the tumors on histologic slides revealed 29.6% necrosis in prinomastat-treated eyes as compared to 10.9% in vehicle-treated eyes (p = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that prinomastat treatment significantly reduces the take rate and the growth rate of xenograft in uveal melanoma rabbit model.

Histological increase in inflammatory infiltrate in sun-exposed skin of female subjects: the possible involvement of matrix metalloproteinase-1 produced by inflammatory infiltrate on collagen degradation

To investigate morphological changes occurring during cutaneous photoageing, a correlation between the number of infiltrating cells in the dermis and the degree of collagen damage was examined using sections from clinically normal chronically sun-exposed and sun-protected skin of Japanese female subjects. Haematoxylin and eosin-stained sections from 134 sun-exposed (subjects aged 3-82 years) and 73 sun-protected (subjects aged 1-86 years) areas demonstrated a predominant lymphoid cell and to a lesser extent histiocyte infiltration. The mean +/- SD number of lymphoid cells and histiocytes in the sun-exposed skin sections (427.0+/-192.2 and 147.8+/-83.3 cells/mm2, respectively) was significantly higher than in the sun-protected skin sections (292.6+/-98.3 and 125.9+/-59.0 cells/mm2, respectively) (P < 0.001 and P < 0.05, respectively), and the number of lymphoid cells in the sun-exposed skin sections increased significantly with age up to 50 years (r = 0.400, P < 0.001). Sun-exposed skin sections with severe collagen degeneration had a significantly higher number of lymphoid cells than those with slightly degenerated collagen (mean 626.3 vs. 482.4 cells/mm2, P < 0.01). The mean count of mast cells in sun-exposed skin was 202.0 cells/mm2; this did not vary with the age of the subjects or the level of collagen damage. Immunohistochemical studies using 24 frozen sections identified most of the lymphoid cells infiltrating sun-exposed skin as memory T lymphocytes (CD3+, CD4+ and CD45RO+). The number of cells which displayed immunoreactivity to matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 in the sun-exposed skin sections was significantly higher than in the sun-protected skin sections (mean 170.2 vs. 113.6 cells/mm2, P < 0.05). Among these cells were observed CD3 and MMP-1 double-stained T lymphocytes, and T lymphocytes contacting MMP-1-positive cells. These morphological observations suggest that T lymphocytes infiltrating photodamaged skin may play a part in the degeneration and reduction of collagen through MMP-1 activity.

Expression of matrix metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors in human brain tumors

In this study, we investigated the expression patterns of 15 matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and three tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase in gliomas, medulloblastomas, and normal brain tissue. By Northern blot analysis we found increased levels of mRNAs encoding for gelatinase A, gelatinase B, two membrane-type MMPs (mt1- and mt2-MMP), and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 in glioblastomas and medulloblastomas. We observed a significant increase of mt1-MMP, gelatinase A, gelatinase B, and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 in glioblastomas as compared with low-grade astrocytomas, anaplastic astrocytomas, and normal brain. In medulloblastomas, the expression of mt1-MMP, mt2-MMP, and gelatinase A were also increased, but to a lesser extent than that observed in glioblastomas. These data were confirmed at the protein level by immunostaining analysis. Moreover, substrate gel electrophoresis showed that the activated forms of gelatinases A and B were present in glioblastomas and medulloblastomas. These results suggest that increased expression of mt1-MMP/gelatinase A is closely related to the malignant progression observed in gliomas. Furthermore, the present study demonstrates, to our knowledge for the first time, that medulloblastomas express high levels of MMP.

Matrix Metalloproteinases Produced by Rat IL-2-Activated NK Cells

We have previously documented that adoptively transferred IL-2-activated NK (A-NK) cells can accumulate within cancer metastases. Electron microscopic studies of pulmonary metastases have revealed that adoptively transferred A-NK cells that accumulate within metastases bind to endothelial cells and are able to traverse basement membranes. We have now extended these morphologic studies. We report that rat A-NK cells produce two matrix metalloproteinases: MMP-2 and MMP-9, as determined by SDS-PAGE gelatin zymography. These activities are inhibited following incubation with BB-94 (batimastat), a specific inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases but not with 3,4-dichloroisocoumarin, an inhibitor of neutral serine proteases. The identity of MMP-2 was confirmed by Western blots using a polyclonal Ab against human MMP-2, whereas reverse transcriptase-PCR analysis of mRNA extracts of A-NK cells has confirmed the presence of MMP-9. In addition, we report for the first time that A-NK cells can migrate through a model basement membrane-like extracellular matrix. Moreover, the ability of A-NK cells to migrate through this model basement membrane was partially inhibited by BB-94; however, BB-94 has no effect on A-NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity, suggesting that matrix metalloproteinases do not contribute to cytolytic function of A-NK cells. In sum, our studies show that A-NK cells employ BB-94-inhibitable matrix metalloproteinases to degrade extracellular matrices. This suggests that matrix metalloproteinases may play a role in the accumulation of A-NK cells within cancer metastases.

A matrix metalloproteinase gene expressed in human T lymphocytes is identical with collagenase 3 from breast carcinomas

The response of human T lymphocytes to various stimuli includes the expression of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) genes stromelysin 2, gelatinase A and gelatinase B. The proteins encoded by these genes could confer the capacity to degrade macromolecular components of the extracellular matrix (ECM), and to shed transmembrane proteins such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), TNF receptor, Interleukin-6 receptor and Fas ligand. To identify further MMP genes transcribed in T lymphocytes exposed to phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and a calcium ionophore, we combined reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction using primers specific for conserved domains and detected collagenase 3 transcripts, first described in a human breast cancer. However, when the sequence of the complementary DNA was compared, additional 23 nucleotides were found in the 5' nontranslated region of the lymphocyte messenger RNA (mRNA). Northern blot analysis revealed 2 major inducible mRNA species of 1.9 and 2.8 kilobases, whose levels were lower than those of stromelysin 2. The observation that activated T lymphocytes transcribe several MMP genes, including a collagenase, indicates that the effector functions of these cells include enzymatic activities towards most constituents of the ECM, as well as some transmembrane proteins relevant to inflammation and apoptosis.

Expression of several matrix metalloproteinase genes in human monocytic cells

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are a family of structurally related endopeptidases that resorb macromolecules of the extracellular matrix (ECM). They are involved in normal tissue remodeling and wound repair as well as in pathological processes such as the irreversible destruction of joints observed in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In addition, MMP catalyze the cleavage of the transmembrane form of tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Since cells of the monocyte lineage are major producers of TNF in the rheumatoid synovium we analysed the expression of MMP genes in these cells. To examine the transcriptional activity of MMP genes in undifferentiated monocytic cell lines (MonoMac6, U937) and in nature human monocytes isolated from peripheral blood, we developed an assay that is based on reverse transcription (RT) followed by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This screening procedure demonstrates that several MMP genes are transcriptionally active in the cells tested after exposure to a variety of stimuli such as phorbol ester, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB). The data were confirmed by quantitative Northern blot analysis. In conclusion, cells of the monocyte lineage produce high mRNA levels of at least six members of the MMP gene family that could participate in joint destruction by resorption of the ECM and secretion of TNF.

Matrix metalloproteinase expression during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and effects of a combined matrix metalloproteinase and tumour necrosis factor-alpha inhibitor

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a large family of Zn2+ endopeptidases that are expressed in inflammatory conditions and are capable of degrading connective tissue macromolecules. MMP-like enzymes are also involved in the processing of a variety of cell surface molecules including the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha. MMPs and TNF-alpha have both been implicated in the pathology associated with neuro-inflammatory diseases (NIDs), particularly multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). We have shown that BB-1101, a broad spectrum hydroxamic acid-based combined inhibitor of MMP activity and TNF processing, reduces the clinical signs and weight loss in an acute EAE model in Lewis rats. However, little is known about which MMPs are involved in the neuroinflammatory process. In order to determine the optimum inhibitory profile for an MMP inhibitor in the treatment of NID, we investigated the profile of MMP expression and activity during EAE. The development of disease symptoms was associated with a 3-fold increase in MMP activity in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which could be inhibited by treatment with BB-1101, and an increase in 92 kDa gelatinase activity detected by gelatin substrate zymography. Quantitative PCR analysis of normal and EAE spinal cord revealed the expression of at least seven MMPs. Of these, matrilysin showed the most significant change, being elevated over 500 fold with onset of clinical symptoms and peaking at maximum disease severity. Of the other six MMPs detected, 92 kDa gelatinase showed a modest 5 fold increase which peaked at the onset of clinical signs and then declined during the most severe phase of the disease. Matrilysin was localised by immunohistochemistry to the invading macrophages within the inflammatory lesions of the spinal cord. Matrilysin's potent broad spectrum proteolytic activity and its localisation to inflammatory lesions in the CNS suggest this enzyme could be particularly involved in the pathological processes associated with neuro-inflammatory disease.

Matrix metalloproteinases, tumor necrosis factor and multiple sclerosis: an overview

The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of at least 14 zinc-dependent enzymes which are known to degrade the protein components of extracellular matrix. In addition, MMPs and related enzymes can also process a number of cell surface cytokines, receptors, and other soluble proteins. In particular we have shown that the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, from its membrane-bound precursor is an MMP-dependent process. MMPs are expressed by the inflammatory cells which are associated with CNS lesions in animal models of multiple sclerosis (MS) and in tissue from patients with the disease. MMP expression will contribute to the tissue destruction and inflammation in MS. Drugs which inhibit MMP activity are effective in animal models of MS and may prove to be useful therapies in the clinic.

Matrix metalloproteinases degrade myelin basic protein

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a group of enzymes responsible for the degradation of interstitial connective tissue and basement membrane. The coding sequences for five of the human MMPs, viz. interstitial collagenase, 72 kDa gelatinase, stromelysin-1, matrilysin and 92 kDa gelatinase, were cloned and expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells, and the proteins purified. The enzymes were compared for their ability to digest myelin basic protein, the major extrinsic membrane protein of central nervous system myelin. The most active on this substrate was 72 kDa gelatinase, followed by stromelysin-1; interstitial collagenase, matrilysin and 92 kDa gelatinase were of comparable but lesser activity. Production of these enzymes by glia or infiltrating inflammatory cells could therefore contribute to demyelination in neuroinflammatory disease.

Metalloproteinase-mediated release of human Fas ligand

Fas ligand (FasL) is a type II integral membrane protein homologous with tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Recent studies indicate that TNF is processed to yield the soluble cytokine by metalloproteinases at the cell surface of activated macrophages and T cells. In the present study, we investigated whether FasL is also released by metalloproteinases. Treatment with hydroxamic acid inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases specifically led to accumulation of membrane-type FasL (p40) on the surface of human FasL cDNA transfectants and activated human T cells, as estimated by surface immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation with newly established anti-human FasL monoclonal antibodies. This surface accumulation of mFasL was associated with the decrease of soluble FasL (p27) in the supernatant as estimated by quantitative ELISA and immunoprecipitation with anti-human FasL monoclonal antibodies. These results indicate that human FasL is efficiently released from the cell surface by metalloproteinases like TNF.