1
|
Arruda AL, Katsoula G, Chen S, Reimann E, Kreitmaier P, Zeggini E. The Genetics and Functional Genomics of Osteoarthritis. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2024; 25:239-257. [PMID: 39190913 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genom-010423-095636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is the most prevalent whole-joint degenerative disorder, and is characterized by the degradation of articular cartilage and the underlying bone structures. Almost 600 million people are affected by osteoarthritis worldwide. No curative treatments are available, and management strategies focus mostly on pain relief. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the available human genetic and functional genomics studies for osteoarthritis to date and delineate how these studies have helped shed light on disease etiopathology. We highlight genetic discoveries from genome-wide association studies and provide a detailed overview of molecular-level investigations in osteoarthritis tissues, including methylation-, transcriptomics-, and proteomics-level analyses. We review how functional genomics data from different molecular levels have helped to prioritize effector genes that can be used as drug targets or drug-repurposing opportunities. Finally, we discuss future directions with the potential to drive a step change in osteoarthritis research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Luiza Arruda
- Graduate School of Experimental Medicine, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Munich, Neuherberg, Germany;
- Munich School for Data Science, Helmholtz Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Georgia Katsoula
- Graduate School of Experimental Medicine, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Munich, Neuherberg, Germany;
- TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich and Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Munich, Germany
| | - Shibo Chen
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Munich, Neuherberg, Germany;
| | - Ene Reimann
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Munich, Neuherberg, Germany;
- Estonian Genome Centre, Institute of Genomics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Peter Kreitmaier
- Graduate School of Experimental Medicine, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Munich, Neuherberg, Germany;
- TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich and Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Munich, Germany
| | - Eleftheria Zeggini
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Munich, Neuherberg, Germany;
- TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich and Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Munich, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Roberts JB, Rice SJ. Osteoarthritis as an Enhanceropathy: Gene Regulation in Complex Musculoskeletal Disease. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2024; 26:222-234. [PMID: 38430365 PMCID: PMC11116181 DOI: 10.1007/s11926-024-01142-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Osteoarthritis is a complex and highly polygenic disease. Over 100 reported osteoarthritis risk variants fall in non-coding regions of the genome, ostensibly conferring functional effects through the disruption of regulatory elements impacting target gene expression. In this review, we summarise the progress that has advanced our knowledge of gene enhancers both within the field of osteoarthritis and more broadly in complex diseases. RECENT FINDINGS Advances in technologies such as ATAC-seq have facilitated our understanding of chromatin states in specific cell types, bolstering the interpretation of GWAS and the identification of effector genes. Their application to osteoarthritis research has revealed enhancers as the principal regulatory element driving disease-associated changes in gene expression. However, tissue-specific effects in gene regulatory mechanisms can contribute added complexity to biological interpretation. Understanding gene enhancers and their altered activity in specific cell and tissue types is the key to unlocking the genetic complexity of osteoarthritis. The use of single-cell technologies in osteoarthritis research is still in its infancy. However, such tools offer great promise in improving our functional interpretation of osteoarthritis GWAS and the identification of druggable targets. Large-scale collaborative efforts will be imperative to understand tissue and cell-type specific molecular mechanisms underlying enhancer function in disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jack B Roberts
- Skeletal Research Group, International Centre for Life, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Sarah J Rice
- Skeletal Research Group, International Centre for Life, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Roberts JB, Boldvig OLG, Aubourg G, Kanchenapally ST, Deehan DJ, Rice SJ, Loughlin J. Specific isoforms of the ubiquitin ligase gene WWP2 are targets of osteoarthritis genetic risk via a differentially methylated DNA sequence. Arthritis Res Ther 2024; 26:78. [PMID: 38570801 PMCID: PMC10988806 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-024-03315-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transitioning from a genetic association signal to an effector gene and a targetable molecular mechanism requires the application of functional fine-mapping tools such as reporter assays and genome editing. In this report, we undertook such studies on the osteoarthritis (OA) risk that is marked by single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs34195470 (A > G). The OA risk-conferring G allele of this SNP associates with increased DNA methylation (DNAm) at two CpG dinucleotides within WWP2. This gene encodes a ubiquitin ligase and is the host gene of microRNA-140 (miR-140). WWP2 and miR-140 are both regulators of TGFβ signaling. METHODS Nucleic acids were extracted from adult OA (arthroplasty) and foetal cartilage. Samples were genotyped and DNAm quantified by pyrosequencing at the two CpGs plus 14 flanking CpGs. CpGs were tested for transcriptional regulatory effects using a chondrocyte cell line and reporter gene assay. DNAm was altered using epigenetic editing, with the impact on gene expression determined using RT-qPCR. In silico analysis complemented laboratory experiments. RESULTS rs34195470 genotype associates with differential methylation at 14 of the 16 CpGs in OA cartilage, forming a methylation quantitative trait locus (mQTL). The mQTL is less pronounced in foetal cartilage (5/16 CpGs). The reporter assay revealed that the CpGs reside within a transcriptional regulator. Epigenetic editing to increase their DNAm resulted in altered expression of the full-length and N-terminal transcript isoforms of WWP2. No changes in expression were observed for the C-terminal isoform of WWP2 or for miR-140. CONCLUSIONS As far as we are aware, this is the first experimental demonstration of an OA association signal targeting specific transcript isoforms of a gene. The WWP2 isoforms encode proteins with varying substrate specificities for the components of the TGFβ signaling pathway. Future analysis should focus on the substrates regulated by the two WWP2 isoforms that are the targets of this genetic risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jack B Roberts
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK.
| | - Olivia L G Boldvig
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Guillaume Aubourg
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - S Tanishq Kanchenapally
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - David J Deehan
- Freeman Hospital, Newcastle University Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Sarah J Rice
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - John Loughlin
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kreitmaier P, Park YC, Swift D, Gilly A, Wilkinson JM, Zeggini E. Epigenomic profiling of the infrapatellar fat pad in osteoarthritis. Hum Mol Genet 2024; 33:501-509. [PMID: 37975894 PMCID: PMC10939427 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddad198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is a prevalent, complex disease of the joints, and affects multiple intra-articular tissues. Here, we have examined genome-wide DNA methylation profiles of primary infrapatellar fat pad and matched blood samples from 70 osteoarthritis patients undergoing total knee replacement surgery. Comparing the DNA methylation profiles between these tissues reveal widespread epigenetic differences. We produce the first genome-wide methylation quantitative trait locus (mQTL) map of fat pad, and make the resource available to the wider community. Using two-sample Mendelian randomization and colocalization analyses, we resolve osteoarthritis GWAS signals and provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underpinning disease aetiopathology. Our findings provide the first view of the epigenetic landscape of infrapatellar fat pad primary tissue in osteoarthritis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Kreitmaier
- Technical University of Munich (TUM) and Klinikum Rechts der Isar, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Ismaninger Str. 22, Munich 81675, Germany
- Graduate School of Experimental Medicine, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Str. 22, Munich 81675, Germany
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstaedter Landstr. 1, Neuherberg 85764, Germany
| | - Young-Chan Park
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstaedter Landstr. 1, Neuherberg 85764, Germany
| | - Diane Swift
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, The University of Sheffield, Beech Hill Rd, Sheffield S10 2RX, United Kingdom
| | - Arthur Gilly
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstaedter Landstr. 1, Neuherberg 85764, Germany
| | - J Mark Wilkinson
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, The University of Sheffield, Beech Hill Rd, Sheffield S10 2RX, United Kingdom
| | - Eleftheria Zeggini
- Technical University of Munich (TUM) and Klinikum Rechts der Isar, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Ismaninger Str. 22, Munich 81675, Germany
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstaedter Landstr. 1, Neuherberg 85764, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gu Y, Hu Y, Zhang H, Wang S, Xu K, Su J. Single-cell RNA sequencing in osteoarthritis. Cell Prolif 2023; 56:e13517. [PMID: 37317049 PMCID: PMC10693192 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.13517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is a progressive and heterogeneous joint disease with complex pathogenesis. The various phenotypes associated with each patient suggest that better subgrouping of tissues associated with genotypes in different phases of osteoarthritis may provide new insights into the onset and progression of the disease. Recently, single-cell RNA sequencing was used to describe osteoarthritis pathogenesis on a high-resolution view surpassing traditional technologies. Herein, this review summarizes the microstructural changes in articular cartilage, meniscus, synovium and subchondral bone that are mainly due to crosstalk amongst chondrocytes, osteoblasts, fibroblasts and endothelial cells during osteoarthritis progression. Next, we focus on the promising targets discovered by single-cell RNA sequencing and its potential applications in target drugs and tissue engineering. Additionally, the limited amount of research on the evaluation of bone-related biomaterials is reviewed. Based on the pre-clinical findings, we elaborate on the potential clinical values of single-cell RNA sequencing for the therapeutic strategies of osteoarthritis. Finally, a perspective on the future development of patient-centred medicine for osteoarthritis therapy combining other single-cell multi-omics technologies is discussed. This review will provide new insights into osteoarthritis pathogenesis on a cellular level and the field of applications of single-cell RNA sequencing in personalized therapeutics for osteoarthritis in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuyuan Gu
- Institute of Translational MedicineShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- Organoid Research CenterShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- School of MedicineShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Yan Hu
- Institute of Translational MedicineShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- Organoid Research CenterShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Hao Zhang
- Institute of Translational MedicineShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- Organoid Research CenterShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Sicheng Wang
- Institute of Translational MedicineShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- Organoid Research CenterShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- Department of OrthopedicsShanghai Zhongye HospitalShanghaiChina
| | - Ke Xu
- Institute of Translational MedicineShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- Organoid Research CenterShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- Wenzhou Institute of Shanghai UniversityWenzhouChina
| | - Jiacan Su
- Institute of Translational MedicineShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
- Organoid Research CenterShanghai UniversityShanghaiChina
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kehayova YS, Wilkinson JM, Rice SJ, Loughlin J. Mediation of the Same Epigenetic and Transcriptional Effect by Independent Osteoarthritis Risk-Conferring Alleles on a Shared Target Gene, COLGALT2. Arthritis Rheumatol 2023; 75:910-922. [PMID: 36538011 PMCID: PMC10952352 DOI: 10.1002/art.42427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Over 100 DNA variants have been associated with osteoarthritis (OA), including rs1046934, located within a linkage disequilibrium block encompassing part of COLGALT2 and TSEN15. The present study was undertaken to determine the target gene(s) and the mechanism of action of the OA locus using human fetal cartilage, cartilage from OA and femoral neck fracture arthroplasty patients, and a chondrocyte cell model. METHODS Genotyping and methylation array data of DNA from human OA cartilage samples (n = 87) were used to determine whether the rs1046934 genotype is associated with differential DNA methylation at proximal CpGs. Results were replicated in DNA from human arthroplasty (n = 132) and fetal (n = 77) cartilage samples using pyrosequencing. Allelic expression imbalance (AEI) measured the effects of genotype on COLGALT2 and TSEN15 expression. Reporter gene assays and epigenetic editing determined the functional role of regions harboring differentially methylated CpGs. In silico analyses complemented these experiments. RESULTS Three differentially methylated CpGs residing within regulatory regions were detected in the human OA cartilage array data, and 2 of these were replicated in human arthroplasty and fetal cartilage. AEI was detected for COLGALT2 and TSEN15, with associations between expression and methylation for COLGALT2. Reporter gene assays confirmed that the CpGs are in chondrocyte enhancers, with epigenetic editing results directly linking methylation with COLGALT2 expression. CONCLUSION COLGALT2 is a target of this OA locus. We previously characterized another OA locus, marked by rs11583641, that independently targets COLGALT2. The genotype of rs1046934, like rs11583641, mediates its effect by modulating expression of COLGALT2 via methylation changes to CpGs located in enhancers. Although the single-nucleotide polymorphisms, CpGs, and enhancers are distinct between the 2 independent OA risk loci, their effect on COLGALT2 is the same. COLGALT2 is the target of independent OA risk loci sharing a common mechanism of action.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - J. Mark Wilkinson
- Department of Oncology and MetabolismUniversity of SheffieldSheffieldUK
| | - Sarah J. Rice
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - John Loughlin
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kehayova YS, Wilkinson JM, Rice SJ, Loughlin J. Osteoarthritis genetic risk acting on the galactosyltransferase gene COLGALT2 has opposing functional effects in articulating joint tissues. Arthritis Res Ther 2023; 25:83. [PMID: 37208701 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-023-03066-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Investigation of cartilage and chondrocytes has revealed that the osteoarthritis risk marked by the independent DNA variants rs11583641 and rs1046934 mediate their effects by decreasing the methylation status of CpG dinucleotides in enhancers and increasing the expression of shared target gene COLGALT2. We set out to investigate if these functional effects operate in a non-cartilaginous joint tissue. METHODS Nucleic acids were extracted from the synovium of osteoarthritis patients. Samples were genotyped, and DNA methylation was quantified by pyrosequencing at CpGs within the COLGALT2 enhancers. CpGs were tested for enhancer effects using a synovial cell line and a reporter gene assay. DNA methylation was altered using epigenetic editing, with the impact on gene expression determined using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. In silico analysis complemented laboratory experiments. RESULTS The rs1046934 genotype did not associate with DNA methylation or COLGALT2 expression in the synovium, whereas the rs11583641 genotype did. Surprisingly, the effects for rs11583641 were opposite to those previously observed in cartilage. Epigenetic editing in synovial cells revealed that enhancer methylation is causally linked to COLGALT2 expression. CONCLUSIONS This is the first direct demonstration for osteoarthritis genetic risk of a functional link between DNA methylation and gene expression operating in opposite directions between articular joint tissues. It highlights pleiotropy in the action of osteoarthritis risk and provides a cautionary note in the application of future genetically based osteoarthritis therapies: an intervention that decreases the detrimental effect of a risk allele in one joint tissue may inadvertently increase its detrimental effect in another joint tissue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yulia S Kehayova
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - J Mark Wilkinson
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Sarah J Rice
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK.
| | - John Loughlin
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kim M, Rubab A, Chan WC, Chan D. Osteoarthritis year in review: genetics, genomics and epigenetics. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2023:S1063-4584(23)00725-2. [PMID: 36924918 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2023.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
This "year in review" provides a summary of the research findings on the topic of genetics, genomics and epigenetics for osteoarthritis (OA) between Mar 2021-Apr 2022. A search routine of the literature in PubMed for the keyword, osteoarthritis, together with topics on genetics, genomics, epigenetics, polymorphism, DNA methylation, noncoding RNA, lncRNA, proteomics, and single cell RNA sequencing, returned key research articles and relevant reviews. Following filtering of duplicates across search routines, 695 unique research articles and 112 reviews were identified. We manually curated these articles and selected 90 as references for this review. However, we were unable to refer to all these articles, and only used selected articles to highlight key outcomes and trends. The trend in genetics is on the meta-analysis of existing cohorts with comparable genetic and phenotype characterisation of OA; in particular, clear definition of endophenotypes to enhance the genetic power. Further, many researchers are realizing the power of big data and multi-omics approaches to gain molecular insights for OA, and this has opened innovative approaches to include transcriptomics and epigenetics data as quantitative trait loci (QTLs). Given that most of the genetic loci for OA are not located within coding regions of genes, implying the impact is likely to be on gene regulation, epigenetics is a hot topic, and there is a surge in studies relating to the role of miRNA and long non-coding RNA on cartilage biology and pathology. The findings are exciting and new insights are provided in this review to summarize a year of research and the road map to capture all new innovations to achieve the desired goal in OA prevention and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minyeong Kim
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Aqsa Rubab
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Wilson Cw Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Danny Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Insights from multi-omics integration in complex disease primary tissues. Trends Genet 2023; 39:46-58. [PMID: 36137835 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2022.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have provided insights into the genetic basis of complex diseases. In the next step, integrative multi-omics approaches can characterize molecular profiles in relevant primary tissues to reveal the mechanisms that underlie disease development. Here, we highlight recent progress in four examples of complex diseases generated by integrative studies: type 2 diabetes (T2D), osteoarthritis, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). High-resolution methodologies such as single-cell and spatial omics techniques will become even more important in the future. Furthermore, we emphasize the urgent need to include as yet understudied cell types and increase the diversity of studied populations.
Collapse
|
10
|
Sahu N, Grandi FC, Bhutani N. A single-cell mass cytometry platform to map the effects of preclinical drugs on cartilage homeostasis. JCI Insight 2022; 7:160702. [PMID: 36194485 PMCID: PMC9744259 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.160702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
No disease-modifying drug exists for osteoarthritis (OA). Despite success in animal models, candidate drugs continue to fail in clinical trials owing to the unmapped interpatient heterogeneity and disease complexity. We used a single-cell platform based on cytometry by time-of-flight (cyTOF) to precisely outline the effects of candidate drugs on human OA chondrocytes. OA chondrocytes harvested from patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty were treated with 2 drugs, an NF-κB pathway inhibitor, BMS-345541, and a chondroinductive small molecule, kartogenin, that showed preclinical success in animal models for OA. cyTOF conducted with 30 metal isotope-labeled antibodies parsed the effects of the drugs on inflammatory, senescent, and chondroprogenitor cell populations. The NF-κB pathway inhibition decreased the expression of p-NF-κB, HIF2A, and inducible NOS in multiple chondrocyte clusters and significantly depleted 4 p16ink4a-expressing senescent populations, including NOTCH1+STRO1+ chondroprogenitor cells. While kartogenin also affected select p16ink4a-expressing senescent clusters, there was a less discernible effect on chondroprogenitor cell populations. Overall, BMS-345541 elicited a uniform drug response in all patients, while only a few responded to kartogenin. These studies demonstrate that a single-cell cyTOF-based drug screening platform can provide insights into patient response assessment and patient stratification.
Collapse
|
11
|
A C-terminal glutamine recognition mechanism revealed by E3 ligase TRIM7 structures. Nat Chem Biol 2022; 18:1214-1223. [PMID: 35982226 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01128-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The E3 ligase TRIM7 has emerged as a critical player in viral infection and pathogenesis. However, the mechanism governing the TRIM7-substrate association remains to be defined. Here we report the crystal structures of TRIM7 in complex with 2C peptides of human enterovirus. Structure-guided studies reveal the C-terminal glutamine residue of 2C as the primary determinant for TRIM7 binding. Leveraged by this finding, we identify norovirus and SARS-CoV-2 proteins, and physiological proteins, as new TRIM7 substrates. Crystal structures of TRIM7 in complex with multiple peptides derived from SARS-CoV-2 proteins display the same glutamine-end recognition mode. Furthermore, TRIM7 could trigger the ubiquitination and degradation of these substrates, possibly representing a new Gln/C-degron pathway. Together, these findings unveil a common recognition mode by TRIM7, providing the foundation for further mechanistic characterization of antiviral and cellular functions of TRIM7.
Collapse
|
12
|
Brumwell A, Aubourg G, Hussain J, Parker E, Deehan DJ, Rice SJ, Loughlin J. Identification of TMEM129, encoding a ubiquitin-protein ligase, as an effector gene of osteoarthritis genetic risk. Arthritis Res Ther 2022; 24:189. [PMID: 35941660 PMCID: PMC9358880 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-022-02882-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Osteoarthritis is highly heritable and genome-wide studies have identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with the disease. One such locus is marked by SNP rs11732213 (T > C). Genotype at rs11732213 correlates with the methylation levels of nearby CpG dinucleotides (CpGs), forming a methylation quantitative trait locus (mQTL). This study investigated the regulatory activity of the CpGs to identify a target gene of the locus. METHODS Nucleic acids were extracted from the articular cartilage of osteoarthritis patients. Samples were genotyped, and DNA methylation was quantified by pyrosequencing at 14 CpGs within a 259-bp interval. CpGs were tested for enhancer effects in immortalised chondrocytes using a reporter gene assay. DNA methylation at the locus was altered using targeted epigenome editing, with the impact on gene expression determined using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS rs11732213 genotype correlated with DNA methylation at nine CpGs, which formed a differentially methylated region (DMR), with the osteoarthritis risk allele T corresponding to reduced levels of methylation. The DMR acted as an enhancer and demethylation of the CpGs altered expression of TMEM129. Allelic imbalance in TMEM129 expression was identified in cartilage, with under-expression of the risk allele. CONCLUSIONS TMEM129 is a target of osteoarthritis genetic risk at this locus. Genotype at rs11732213 impacts DNA methylation at the enhancer, which, in turn, modulates TMEM129 expression. TMEM129 encodes an enzyme involved in protein degradation within the endoplasmic reticulum, a process previously implicated in osteoarthritis. TMEM129 is a compelling osteoarthritis susceptibility target.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abby Brumwell
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Guillaume Aubourg
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Juhel Hussain
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Eleanor Parker
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - David J Deehan
- Freeman Hospital, Newcastle University Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Sarah J Rice
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - John Loughlin
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Cai Z, Long T, Zhao Y, Lin R, Wang Y. Epigenetic Regulation in Knee Osteoarthritis. Front Genet 2022; 13:942982. [PMID: 35873487 PMCID: PMC9304589 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.942982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a complicated disease with both hereditary and environmental causes. Despite an increase in reports of possible OA risk loci, it has become clear that genetics is not the sole cause of osteoarthritis. Epigenetics, which can be triggered by environmental influences and result in transcriptional alterations, may have a role in OA pathogenesis. The majority of recent research on the epigenetics of OA has been focused on DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNAs. However, this study will explore epigenetic regulation in OA at the present stage. How genetics, environmental variables, and epigenetics interact will be researched, shedding light for future studies. Their possible interaction and control processes open up new avenues for the development of innovative osteoarthritis treatment and diagnostic techniques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Teng Long
- *Correspondence: Teng Long, ; You Wang,
| | | | | | - You Wang
- *Correspondence: Teng Long, ; You Wang,
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kreitmaier P, Suderman M, Southam L, Coutinho de Almeida R, Hatzikotoulas K, Meulenbelt I, Steinberg J, Relton CL, Wilkinson JM, Zeggini E. An epigenome-wide view of osteoarthritis in primary tissues. Am J Hum Genet 2022; 109:1255-1271. [PMID: 35679866 PMCID: PMC9300761 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2022.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is a complex degenerative joint disease. Here, we investigate matched genotype and methylation profiles of primary chondrocytes from macroscopically intact (low-grade) and degraded (high-grade) osteoarthritis cartilage and from synoviocytes collected from 98 osteoarthritis-affected individuals undergoing knee replacement surgery. We perform an epigenome-wide association study of knee cartilage degeneration and report robustly replicating methylation markers, which reveal an etiologic mechanism linked to the migration of epithelial cells. Using machine learning, we derive methylation models of cartilage degeneration, which we validate with 82% accuracy in independent data. We report a genome-wide methylation quantitative trait locus (mQTL) map of articular cartilage and synovium and identify 18 disease-grade-specific mQTLs in osteoarthritis cartilage. We resolve osteoarthritis GWAS loci through causal inference and colocalization analyses and decipher the epigenetic mechanisms that mediate the effect of genotype on disease risk. Together, our findings provide enhanced insights into epigenetic mechanisms underlying osteoarthritis in primary tissues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Kreitmaier
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Graduate School of Experimental Medicine, TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Matthew Suderman
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, UK
| | - Lorraine Southam
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Rodrigo Coutinho de Almeida
- Department of Biomedical Data Sciences, Section Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Konstantinos Hatzikotoulas
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Ingrid Meulenbelt
- Department of Biomedical Data Sciences, Section Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Julia Steinberg
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; The Daffodil Centre, The University of Sydney, a Joint Venture with Cancer Council NSW, Sydney, NSW 1340, Australia
| | - Caroline L Relton
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, UK
| | - J Mark Wilkinson
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK.
| | - Eleftheria Zeggini
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich and Klinikum Rechts der Isar, 81675 Munich, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Aubourg G, Rice SJ, Bruce-Wootton P, Loughlin J. Genetics of osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2022; 30:636-649. [PMID: 33722698 PMCID: PMC9067452 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2021.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Osteoarthritis genetics has been transformed in the past decade through the application of large-scale genome-wide association scans. So far, over 100 polymorphic DNA variants have been associated with this common and complex disease. These genetic risk variants account for over 20% of osteoarthritis heritability and the vast majority map to non-protein coding regions of the genome where they are presumed to act by regulating the expression of target genes. Statistical fine mapping, in silico analyses of genomics data, and laboratory-based functional studies have enabled the identification of some of these targets, which encode proteins with diverse roles, including extracellular signaling molecules, intracellular enzymes, transcription factors, and cytoskeletal proteins. A large number of the risk variants correlate with epigenetic factors, in particular cartilage DNA methylation changes in cis, implying that epigenetics may be a conduit through which genetic effects on gene expression are mediated. Some of the variants also appear to have been selected as humans adapted to bipedalism, suggesting that a proportion of osteoarthritis genetic susceptibility results from antagonistic pleiotropy, with risk variants having a positive role in joint formation but a negative role in the long-term health of the joint. Although data from an osteoarthritis genetic study has not yet directly led to a novel treatment, some of the osteoarthritis associated genes code for proteins that have available therapeutics. Genetic investigations are therefore revealing fascinating fundamental insights into osteoarthritis and can expose options for translational intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Aubourg
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - S J Rice
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - P Bruce-Wootton
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - J Loughlin
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Izda V, Martin J, Sturdy C, Jeffries MA. DNA methylation and noncoding RNA in OA: Recent findings and methodological advances. OSTEOARTHRITIS AND CARTILAGE OPEN 2022; 3. [PMID: 35360044 PMCID: PMC8966627 DOI: 10.1016/j.ocarto.2021.100208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic musculoskeletal disease characterized by progressive loss of joint function. Historically, it has been characterized as a disease caused by mechanical trauma, so-called ‘wear and tear’. Over the past two decades, it has come to be understood as a complex systemic disorder involving gene-environmental interactions. Epigenetic changes have been increasingly implicated. Recent improvements in microarray and next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have allowed for ever more complex evaluations of epigenetic aberrations associated with the development and progression of OA. Methods: A systematic review was conducted in the Pubmed database. We curated studies that presented the results of DNA methylation and noncoding RNA research in human OA and OA animal models since 1985. Results: Herein, we discuss recent findings and methodological advancements in OA epigenetics, including a discussion of DNA methylation, including microarray and NGS studies, and noncoding RNAs. Beyond cartilage, we also highlight studies in subchondral bone and peripheral blood mononuclear cells, which highlight widespread and potentially clinically important alterations in epigenetic patterns seen in OA patients. Finally, we discuss epigenetic editing approaches in the context of OA. Conclusions: Although a substantial body of literature has already been published in OA, much is still unknown. Future OA epigenetics studies will no doubt continue to broaden our understanding of underlying pathophysiology and perhaps offer novel diagnostics and/or treatments for human OA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav Izda
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Arthritis & Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Jake Martin
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Arthritis & Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Cassandra Sturdy
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Arthritis & Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Matlock A. Jeffries
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Arthritis & Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Immunology, And Allergy, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Corresponding author. Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th Street, Laboratory MC400, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Loughlin J. Translating osteoarthritis genetics research: challenging times ahead. Trends Mol Med 2022; 28:176-182. [PMID: 35033441 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2021.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The ultimate goal of molecular genetic studies of human diseases is to translate the discoveries for patient benefit. For diseases that lack licensed disease-modifying therapeutics, such as osteoarthritis (OA), the need is acute. OA is polygenic and affects older individuals, with a recent genome-wide study of over 800 000 individuals adding 52 novel association signals to those already reported on for this common arthritis. Many of the predicted effector genes of these signals encode proteins that are targets of drugs for other indications, highlighting repurposing opportunities. Here, the potential for OA genetic data to translate is discussed, including whether the developmental origin of OA will limit the application of genetic risk data for disease-modification purposes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John Loughlin
- Newcastle University, Biosciences Institute, International Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Young DA, Barter MJ, Soul J. Osteoarthritis year in review: genetics, genomics, epigenetics. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2022; 30:216-225. [PMID: 34774787 PMCID: PMC8811265 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In this review, we have highlighted the advances over the past year in genetics, genomics and epigenetics in the field of osteoarthritis (OA). METHODS A literature search of PubMed was performed using the criteria: "osteoarthritis" and one of the following terms "genetic(s), genomic(s), epigenetic(s), polymorphism, noncoding ribonucleic acid (RNA), microRNA, long noncoding RNA, lncRNA, circular RNA, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), single cell sequencing, transcriptomics, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) methylation between April 01, 2020 and April 30, 2021. RESULTS In total we identified 765 unique publications, which eventually reduced to 380 of relevance to the field as judged by two assessors. Many of these studies included multiple search terms. We summarised advances relating to genetics, functional genetics, genomics and epigenetics, focusing on our personal key papers during the year. CONCLUSIONS This year few studies have identified new genetic variants contributing to OA susceptibility, but a focus has been on refining risk loci or their functional validation. The use of new technologies together with investigating the cross-talk between multiple tissue types, greater sample sizes and/or better patient classification (OA subtypes) will continue to increase our knowledge of disease mechanisms and progress towards understanding and treating OA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D A Young
- Skeletal Research Group, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Central Parkway, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK.
| | - M J Barter
- Skeletal Research Group, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Central Parkway, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - J Soul
- Skeletal Research Group, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Central Parkway, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To provide an overview of recent developments in the field of osteoarthritis research with a focus on insights gleaned from the application of different -omic technologies. RECENT FINDINGS We searched for osteoarthritis-relevant studies focusing on transcriptomics, epigenomics, proteomics and metabolomics, published since November of 2019. Study designs showed a trend towards characterizing the genomic profile of osteoarthritis-relevant tissues with high resolution, for example either by using single-cell technologies or by considering several -omic levels and disease stages. SUMMARY Multitissue interactions (cartilage-subchondral bone; cartilage-synovium) are prevalent in the pathophysiology of osteoarthritis, which is characterized by substantial matrix remodelling in an inflammatory milieu. Subtyping approaches using -omic technologies have contributed to the identification of at least two osteoarthritis endotypes. Studies using data integration approaches have provided molecular maps that are tissue-specific for osteoarthritis and pave the way for expanding these data integration approaches towards a more comprehensive view of disease aetiopathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Katsoula
- Technical University of Munich (TUM), School of Medicine, Graduate School of Experimental Medicine
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München – German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Peter Kreitmaier
- Technical University of Munich (TUM), School of Medicine, Graduate School of Experimental Medicine
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München – German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Eleftheria Zeggini
- Technical University of Munich (TUM) and Klinikum Rechts der Isar, TUM School of Medicine, Munich
- Institute of Translational Genomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München – German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Kehayova YS, Watson E, Wilkinson JM, Loughlin J, Rice SJ. Genetic and Epigenetic Interplay Within a COLGALT2 Enhancer Associated With Osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheumatol 2021; 73:1856-1865. [PMID: 33760386 DOI: 10.1002/art.41738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The osteoarthritis (OA)-associated single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs11583641 is located in COLGALT2, encoding a posttranslational modifier of collagen. In cartilage, the SNP genotype correlates with DNA methylation in a putative enhancer. This study was undertaken to characterize the mechanistic relationship between rs11583641, the putative enhancer, and COLGALT2 expression using cartilage samples from human patients and a chondrocyte cell model. METHODS Nucleic acids were extracted from articular cartilage samples obtained from patients with OA (n = 137). Samples were genotyped, and DNA methylation was quantified at 12 CpGs using pyrosequencing. The putative enhancer was deleted in Tc28a2 chondrocytes using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat/Cas9, and the impact on nearby gene expression was determined using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Targeted modulation of the epigenome using catalytically dead Cas9 (dCas9) constructs fused to DNA methyltransferase 3a or ten-eleven translocase 1 allowed for the investigation of a causal relationship between DNA methylation and enhancer activity. RESULTS The genotype at rs11583641 correlated with DNA methylation at 3 CpGs, and the presence of the OA risk allele, C, corresponded to reduced levels of methylation. Deletion of the enhancer resulted in a 2.7-fold reduction in COLGALT2 expression. Targeted methylation and demethylation of the CpGs had antagonistic effects on COLGALT2 expression. An allelic imbalance in the expression of COLGALT2 was identified in the cartilage from patients with OA, with relative overexpression of the OA risk allele. Allelic expression ratios correlated with DNA methylation at 4 CpGs. CONCLUSION COLGALT2 is a target of OA genetic risk at this locus. The genotype at rs11583641 impacts DNA methylation in a gene enhancer, which, in turn, modulates COLGALT2 expression. COLGALT2 encodes an enzyme that initiates posttranslational glycosylation of collagens and is therefore a compelling OA susceptibility target.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yulia S Kehayova
- International Centre for Life and Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK, and MRC-Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated research into Musculoskeletal Ageing and University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Emily Watson
- International Centre for Life and Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK, and MRC-Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated research into Musculoskeletal Ageing and University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - J Mark Wilkinson
- University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, and MRC-Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated research into Musculoskeletal Ageing and University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - John Loughlin
- International Centre for Life and Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK, and MRC-Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated research into Musculoskeletal Ageing and University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sarah J Rice
- International Centre for Life and Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK, and MRC-Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated research into Musculoskeletal Ageing and University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| |
Collapse
|