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Huang Y, Vangel M, Chen H, Eshel M, Cheng M, Lu T, Kong J. The Impaired Subcortical Pathway From Superior Colliculus to the Amygdala in Boys With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Integr Neurosci 2022; 16:666439. [PMID: 35784498 PMCID: PMC9247550 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2022.666439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ObjectiveIncreasing evidence suggests that a subcortical pathway from the superior colliculus (SC) through the pulvinar to the amygdala plays a crucial role in mediating non-conscious processing in response to emotional visual stimuli. Given the atypical eye gaze and response patterns to visual affective stimuli in autism, we examined the functional and white matter structural difference of the pathway in boys with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developing (TD) boys.MethodsA total of 38 boys with ASD and 38 TD boys were included. We reconstructed the SC-pulvinar-amygdala pathway in boys with ASD and TD using tractography and analyzed tract-specific measurements to compare the white matter difference between the two groups. A region of interest-based functional analysis was also applied among the key nodes of the pathway to explore the functional connectivity network.ResultsDiffusion tensor imaging analysis showed decreased fractional anisotropy (FA) in pathways for boys with ASD compared to TD. The FA change was significantly associated with the atypical communication pattern in boys with ASD. In addition, compared to TD, we found that the ASD group was associated with increased functional connectivity between the right pulvinar and the left SC.ConclusionOur results indicated that the functional and white matter microstructure of the subcortical route to the amygdala might be altered in individuals with autism. This atypical structural change of the SC-pulvinar-amygdala pathway may be related to the abnormal communication patterns in boys with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiting Huang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Mark Vangel
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Helen Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Maya Eshel
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Ming Cheng
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Tao Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Tao Lu,
| | - Jian Kong
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
- Jian Kong,
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2
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Costa C, Cristea IA, Dal Bò E, Melloni C, Gentili C. Brain activity during facial processing in autism spectrum disorder: an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2021; 62:1412-1424. [PMID: 33723876 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Though aberrant face processing is a hallmark of autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), findings on accompanying brain activity are divergent. Therefore, we conducted an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis of studies examining brain activity during face processing. METHODS We searched PubMed and PsycINFO using combinations of terms as 'fMRI', 'Autism Spectrum Disorder', 'Face Perception'. Eligible studies reported on DSM-diagnosed ASD individuals, compared to controls (HC), using face stimuli presented in fMRI and reporting whole-brain analysis coordinates. We compared two approaches: 'convergence of differences' (primary analysis) using study-level coordinates from ASD vs. HC contrasts, and 'differences in convergence' (secondary) pooling coordinates within each group separately, and contrasting the resultant ALE maps. RESULTS Thirty-five studies (655 ASD and 668 HC) were included. Primary analysis identified a cluster in amygdala/parahippocampus where HC showed greater convergence of activation. Secondary analysis yielded no significant results. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that ASD dysfunction in face processing relies on structures involved in emotional processing rather than perception. We also demonstrate that the two ALE methodologies lead to divergent results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristiano Costa
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Ioana Alina Cristea
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.,IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Elisa Dal Bò
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,Padova Neuroscience Center (PNC), University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Caterina Melloni
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Claudio Gentili
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,Padova Neuroscience Center (PNC), University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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3
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Xie Y, Zhang X, Liu F, Qin W, Fu J, Xue K, Yu C. Brain mRNA Expression Associated with Cortical Volume Alterations in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Cell Rep 2021; 32:108137. [PMID: 32937121 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies report abnormal cerebral cortex volume (CCV) in autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, genes related to CCV abnormalities in ASD remain largely unknown. Here, we identify genes associated with CCV alterations in ASD by performing spatial correlations between the gene expression of 6 donated brains and neuroimaging data from 1,404 ASD patients and 1,499 controls. Based on spatial correlations between gene expression and CCV differences from two independent meta-analyses and between gene expression and individual CCV distributions of 404 patients and 496 controls, we identify 417 genes associated with both CCV differences and individual CCV distributions. These genes are enriched for genetic association signals and genes downregulated in the ASD post-mortem brain. The expression patterns of these genes are correlated with brain activation patterns of language-related neural processes frequently impaired in ASD. These findings highlight a model whereby genetic risk impacts gene expression (downregulated), which leads to CCV alterations in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Xie
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China
| | - Xue Zhang
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China
| | - Feng Liu
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China
| | - Wen Qin
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China
| | - Jilian Fu
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China
| | - Kaizhong Xue
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China
| | - Chunshui Yu
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, P.R. China.
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4
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Quantifying the effect of viewpoint changes on sensitivity to face identity. Vision Res 2019; 165:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2019.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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5
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Stevenson RA, Philipp-Muller A, Hazlett N, Wang ZY, Luk J, Lee J, Black KR, Yeung LK, Shafai F, Segers M, Feber S, Barense MD. Conjunctive Visual Processing Appears Abnormal in Autism. Front Psychol 2019; 9:2668. [PMID: 30713514 PMCID: PMC6346680 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Face processing in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is thought to be atypical, but it is unclear whether differences in visual conjunctive processing are specific to faces. To address this, we adapted a previously established eye-tracking paradigm which modulates the need for conjunctive processing by varying the degree of feature ambiguity in faces and objects. Typically-developed (TD) participants showed a canonical pattern of conjunctive processing: High-ambiguity objects were processed more conjunctively than low-ambiguity objects, and faces were processed in an equally conjunctive manner regardless of ambiguity level. In contrast, autistic individuals did not show differences in conjunctive processing based on stimulus category, providing evidence that atypical visual conjunctive processing in ASD is the result of a domain general lack of perceptual specialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan A Stevenson
- Department of Psychology, Western University, London, ON, Canada.,Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada.,Neuroscience Program, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada.,Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Aviva Philipp-Muller
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Naomi Hazlett
- College of Occupational Therapists of Ontario, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ze Y Wang
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jessica Luk
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jong Lee
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Karen R Black
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lok-Kin Yeung
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Fakhri Shafai
- Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Magali Segers
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Susanne Feber
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Morgan D Barense
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Toronto, ON, Canada
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6
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McCrackin SD, Itier RJ. Is it about me? Time-course of self-relevance and valence effects on the perception of neutral faces with direct and averted gaze. Biol Psychol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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7
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Feczko E, Balba NM, Miranda-Dominguez O, Cordova M, Karalunas SL, Irwin L, Demeter DV, Hill AP, Langhorst BH, Grieser Painter J, Van Santen J, Fombonne EJ, Nigg JT, Fair DA. Subtyping cognitive profiles in Autism Spectrum Disorder using a Functional Random Forest algorithm. Neuroimage 2017; 172:674-688. [PMID: 29274502 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.12.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
DSM-5 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) comprises a set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by deficits in social communication and interaction and repetitive behaviors or restricted interests, and may both affect and be affected by multiple cognitive mechanisms. This study attempts to identify and characterize cognitive subtypes within the ASD population using our Functional Random Forest (FRF) machine learning classification model. This model trained a traditional random forest model on measures from seven tasks that reflect multiple levels of information processing. 47 ASD diagnosed and 58 typically developing (TD) children between the ages of 9 and 13 participated in this study. Our RF model was 72.7% accurate, with 80.7% specificity and 63.1% sensitivity. Using the random forest model, the FRF then measures the proximity of each subject to every other subject, generating a distance matrix between participants. This matrix is then used in a community detection algorithm to identify subgroups within the ASD and TD groups, and revealed 3 ASD and 4 TD putative subgroups with unique behavioral profiles. We then examined differences in functional brain systems between diagnostic groups and putative subgroups using resting-state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging (rsfcMRI). Chi-square tests revealed a significantly greater number of between group differences (p < .05) within the cingulo-opercular, visual, and default systems as well as differences in inter-system connections in the somato-motor, dorsal attention, and subcortical systems. Many of these differences were primarily driven by specific subgroups suggesting that our method could potentially parse the variation in brain mechanisms affected by ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Feczko
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Department of Medical Informatics and Clinical Epidemiology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland OR, 97239, USA.
| | - N M Balba
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - O Miranda-Dominguez
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - M Cordova
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - S L Karalunas
- Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - L Irwin
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - D V Demeter
- The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Psychology, Austin, TX 78713, USA
| | - A P Hill
- Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Center for Spoken Language Understanding, Institute on Development & Disability, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - B H Langhorst
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - J Grieser Painter
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - J Van Santen
- Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Center for Spoken Language Understanding, Institute on Development & Disability, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - E J Fombonne
- Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - J T Nigg
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - D A Fair
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
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8
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Pavlova MA, Guerreschi M, Tagliavento L, Gitti F, Sokolov AN, Fallgatter AJ, Fazzi E. Social cognition in autism: Face tuning. Sci Rep 2017; 7:2734. [PMID: 28578379 PMCID: PMC5457440 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02790-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Faces convey valuable information for social cognition, effective interpersonal interaction, and non-verbal communication. Face perception is believed to be atypical in autism, but the origin of this deficit is controversial. Dominant featural face encoding is suggested to be responsible for face tuning scarcity. Here we used a recently developed Face-n-Food paradigm for studying face tuning in individuals with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD). The key benefit of these images is that single components do not explicitly trigger face processing. In a spontaneous recognition task, adolescents with autism and typically developing matched controls were presented with a set of Face-n-Food images in different degree resembling a face (slightly bordering on the Giuseppe Arcimboldo style). The set of images was shown in a predetermined order from the least to most resembling a face. Thresholds for recognition of the Face-n-Food images as a face in ASD individuals were substantially higher than in typically developing controls: they did not report seeing a face on the images, which controls easily recognized as a face, and gave overall fewer face responses. This outcome not only lends support to atypical face tuning, but provides novel insights into the origin of face encoding deficits in autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina A Pavlova
- Department of Biomedical Magnetic Resonance, Medical School, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany. .,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical School and University Hospital, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Michele Guerreschi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Lucia Tagliavento
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Filippo Gitti
- Unit of Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry, Asst Spedali Civili di Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Alexander N Sokolov
- Women's Health Research Institute, Department of Women's Health, Medical School and University Hospital, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas J Fallgatter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical School and University Hospital, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Elisa Fazzi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.,Unit of Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry, Asst Spedali Civili di Brescia, Brescia, Italy
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9
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Dougherty CC, Evans DW, Katuwal GJ, Michael AM. Asymmetry of fusiform structure in autism spectrum disorder: trajectory and association with symptom severity. Mol Autism 2016; 7:28. [PMID: 27226895 PMCID: PMC4879740 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-016-0089-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background While asymmetry in the fusiform gyrus (FFG) has been reported in functional and structural studies in typically developing controls (TDC), few studies have examined FFG asymmetry in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) subjects and those studies are limited by small sample sizes, and confounded by cognitive ability or handedness. No previous work has examined FFG surface area or cortical thickness asymmetry in ASD; nor do we understand the trajectory of FFG asymmetry over time. Finally, it is not known how FFG structural asymmetry relates to ASD symptom severity. Methods In this study, we examined FFG volume, surface area, and cortical thickness asymmetry, as well as their cross-sectional trajectories in a large sample of right-handed males aged 7 to 25 years with 128 ASD and 127 TDC subjects using general linear models. In addition, we examined the relationship between FFG asymmetry and ASD severity using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and Gotham autism severity scores. Results Findings revealed that while group differences were evident with mean leftward asymmetry in ASD and mean near symmetry in TDC volume and surface area, asymmetry for both groups existed on a spectrum encompassing leftward and rightward asymmetry. In ASD subjects, volume asymmetry was negatively associated with ADOS and autism severity score symptom measures, with a subset of rightward asymmetric patients being most severely affected. We also observed differential trajectory of surface area asymmetry: ASD subjects exhibited a change from leftward asymmetry toward symmetry from age 7 to 25, whereas TDCs exhibited the reverse trend with a change from near symmetry toward leftward symmetry over the observed age range. Conclusions Abnormalities in FFG structural asymmetry are related to symptom severity in ASD and show differential developmental trajectory compared to TDC. This study is the first to note these findings. These results may have important implications for understanding the role of FFG asymmetry in ASD. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13229-016-0089-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chase C Dougherty
- Autism and Developmental Medicine Institute, Geisinger Health System, 120 Hamm Drive, Lewisburg, PA 17837 USA
| | - David W Evans
- Department of Psychology, Program in Neuroscience, Bucknell University, 701 Moore Avenue, Lewisburg, PA 17837 USA
| | - Gajendra J Katuwal
- Autism and Developmental Medicine Institute, Geisinger Health System, 120 Hamm Drive, Lewisburg, PA 17837 USA ; Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623 USA
| | - Andrew M Michael
- Autism and Developmental Medicine Institute, Geisinger Health System, 120 Hamm Drive, Lewisburg, PA 17837 USA ; Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623 USA ; Institute for Advanced Application, Geisinger Health System, 100 N Academy Ave, Danville, PA 17822 USA
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10
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Shah P, Bird G, Cook R. Face processing in autism: Reduced integration of cross-feature dynamics. Cortex 2015; 75:113-119. [PMID: 26756454 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2015.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2015] [Revised: 10/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Characteristic problems with social interaction have prompted considerable interest in the face processing of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Studies suggest that reduced integration of information from disparate facial regions likely contributes to difficulties recognizing static faces in this population. Recent work also indicates that observers with ASD have problems using patterns of facial motion to judge identity and gender, and may be less able to derive global motion percepts. These findings raise the possibility that feature integration deficits also impact the perception of moving faces. To test this hypothesis, we examined whether observers with ASD exhibit susceptibility to a new dynamic face illusion, thought to index integration of moving facial features. When typical observers view eye-opening and -closing in the presence of asynchronous mouth-opening and -closing, the concurrent mouth movements induce a strong illusory slowing of the eye transitions. However, we find that observers with ASD are not susceptible to this illusion, suggestive of weaker integration of cross-feature dynamics. Nevertheless, observers with ASD and typical controls were equally able to detect the physical differences between comparison eye transitions. Importantly, this confirms that observers with ASD were able to fixate the eye-region, indicating that the striking group difference has a perceptual, not attentional origin. The clarity of the present results contrasts starkly with the modest effect sizes and equivocal findings seen throughout the literature on static face perception in ASD. We speculate that differences in the perception of facial motion may be a more reliable feature of this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Punit Shah
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, University of London, London, UK
| | - Geoffrey Bird
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, University of London, London, UK; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, University of London, London, UK
| | - Richard Cook
- Department of Psychology, City University London, London, UK.
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