1
|
Bagdonaite I, Abdurahman S, Mirandola M, Pasqual D, Frank M, Narimatsu Y, Joshi HJ, Vakhrushev SY, Salata C, Mirazimi A, Wandall HH. Targeting host O-linked glycan biosynthesis affects Ebola virus replication efficiency and reveals differential GalNAc-T acceptor site preferences on the Ebola virus glycoprotein. J Virol 2024; 98:e0052424. [PMID: 38757972 PMCID: PMC11237518 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00524-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Ebola virus glycoprotein (EBOV GP) is one of the most heavily O-glycosylated viral glycoproteins, yet we still lack a fundamental understanding of the structure of its large O-glycosylated mucin-like domain and to what degree the host O-glycosylation capacity influences EBOV replication. Using tandem mass spectrometry, we identified 47 O-glycosites on EBOV GP and found similar glycosylation signatures on virus-like particle- and cell lysate-derived GP. Furthermore, we performed quantitative differential O-glycoproteomics on proteins produced in wild-type HEK293 cells and cell lines ablated for the three key initiators of O-linked glycosylation, GalNAc-T1, -T2, and -T3. The data show that 12 out of the 47 O-glycosylated sites were regulated, predominantly by GalNAc-T1. Using the glycoengineered cell lines for authentic EBOV propagation, we demonstrate the importance of O-linked glycan initiation and elongation for the production of viral particles and the titers of progeny virus. The mapped O-glycan positions and structures allowed to generate molecular dynamics simulations probing the largely unknown spatial arrangements of the mucin-like domain. The data highlight targeting GALNT1 or C1GALT1C1 as a possible way to modulate O-glycan density on EBOV GP for novel vaccine designs and tailored intervention approaches.IMPORTANCEEbola virus glycoprotein acquires its extensive glycan shield in the host cell, where it is decorated with N-linked glycans and mucin-type O-linked glycans. The latter is initiated by a family of polypeptide GalNAc-transferases that have different preferences for optimal peptide substrates resulting in a spectrum of both very selective and redundant substrates for each isoform. In this work, we map the exact locations of O-glycans on Ebola virus glycoprotein and identify subsets of sites preferentially initiated by one of the three key isoforms of GalNAc-Ts, demonstrating that each enzyme contributes to the glycan shield integrity. We further show that altering host O-glycosylation capacity has detrimental effects on Ebola virus replication, with both isoform-specific initiation and elongation playing a role. The combined structural and functional data highlight glycoengineered cell lines as useful tools for investigating molecular mechanisms imposed by specific glycans and for steering the immune responses in future vaccine designs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ieva Bagdonaite
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Mattia Mirandola
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Denis Pasqual
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Yoshiki Narimatsu
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Hiren J Joshi
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sergey Y Vakhrushev
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Cristiano Salata
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Ali Mirazimi
- Public Health Agency of Sweden, Solna, Sweden
- Department of Laboratory Medicine (LABMED), Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- National Veterinary Institute, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hans H Wandall
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Vengesai A, Muleya V, Midzi H, Tinago TV, Chipako I, Manuwa M, Naicker T, Mduluza T. Diagnostic performances of Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni recombinant proteins, peptides and chimeric proteins antibody based tests. Systematic scoping review. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0282233. [PMID: 36862712 PMCID: PMC9980832 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traditional diagnostic tests for schistosome infections are suboptimal, particularly when the parasite burden is low. In the present review we sought to identify recombinant proteins, peptides, and chimeric proteins with potential to be used as sensitive and specific diagnostic tools for schistosomiasis. METHODS The review was guided by PRISMA-ScR guidelines, Arksey and O'Malley's framework, and guidelines from the Joanna Briggs Institute. Five databases were searched: Cochrane library, PubMed, EMBASE, PsycInfo and CINAHL, alongside preprints. Identified literature were assessed by two reviewers for inclusion. A narrative summary was used to interpret the tabulated results. RESULTS Diagnostic performances were reported as specificities, sensitivities, and AUC. The AUC for S. haematobium recombinant antigens ranged from 0.65 to 0.98, and 0.69 to 0.96 for urine IgG ELISA. S. mansoni recombinant antigens had sensitivities ranging from 65.3% to 100% and specificities ranging from 57.4% to 100%. Except for 4 peptides which had poor diagnostic performances, most peptides had sensitivities ranging from 67.71% to 96.15% and specificities ranging from 69.23% to 100%. S. mansoni chimeric protein was reported to have a sensitivity of 86.8% and a specificity of 94.2%. CONCLUSION The tetraspanin CD63 antigen had the best diagnostic performance for S. haematobium. The tetraspanin CD63 antigen Serum IgG POC-ICTs had a sensitivity of 89% and a specificity of 100%. Peptide Smp_150390.1 (216-230) serum based IgG ELISA had the best diagnostic performance for S. mansoni with a sensitivity of 96.15% and a specificity of 100%. Peptides were reported to demonstrate good to excellent diagnostic performances. S. mansoni multi-peptide chimeric protein further improved the diagnostic accuracy of synthetic peptides. Together with the advantages associated with urine sampling technique, we recommend development of multi-peptide chimeric proteins urine based point of care tools.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Vengesai
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
- * E-mail:
| | - Victor Muleya
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | - Herald Midzi
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zimbabwe, Mt Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Isaac Chipako
- Aravas Pharmaceuticals Pvt LTD, Prospect Industrial Area, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Marble Manuwa
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zimbabwe, Mt Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Thajasvarie Naicker
- Discipline of Optics and Imaging, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Takafira Mduluza
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zimbabwe, Mt Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Escudero-Pérez B, Lawrence P, Castillo-Olivares J. Immune correlates of protection for SARS-CoV-2, Ebola and Nipah virus infection. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1156758. [PMID: 37153606 PMCID: PMC10158532 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1156758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Correlates of protection (CoP) are biological parameters that predict a certain level of protection against an infectious disease. Well-established correlates of protection facilitate the development and licensing of vaccines by assessing protective efficacy without the need to expose clinical trial participants to the infectious agent against which the vaccine aims to protect. Despite the fact that viruses have many features in common, correlates of protection can vary considerably amongst the same virus family and even amongst a same virus depending on the infection phase that is under consideration. Moreover, the complex interplay between the various immune cell populations that interact during infection and the high degree of genetic variation of certain pathogens, renders the identification of immune correlates of protection difficult. Some emerging and re-emerging viruses of high consequence for public health such as SARS-CoV-2, Nipah virus (NiV) and Ebola virus (EBOV) are especially challenging with regards to the identification of CoP since these pathogens have been shown to dysregulate the immune response during infection. Whereas, virus neutralising antibodies and polyfunctional T-cell responses have been shown to correlate with certain levels of protection against SARS-CoV-2, EBOV and NiV, other effector mechanisms of immunity play important roles in shaping the immune response against these pathogens, which in turn might serve as alternative correlates of protection. This review describes the different components of the adaptive and innate immune system that are activated during SARS-CoV-2, EBOV and NiV infections and that may contribute to protection and virus clearance. Overall, we highlight the immune signatures that are associated with protection against these pathogens in humans and could be used as CoP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Escudero-Pérez
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel-Reims, Braunschweig, Germany
- *Correspondence: Beatriz Escudero-Pérez, ; Javier Castillo-Olivares,
| | - Philip Lawrence
- CONFLUENCE: Sciences et Humanités (EA 1598), Université Catholique de Lyon (UCLy), Lyon, France
| | - Javier Castillo-Olivares
- Laboratory of Viral Zoonotics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Beatriz Escudero-Pérez, ; Javier Castillo-Olivares,
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Paris G, Heidepriem J, Tsouka A, Liu Y, Mattes DS, Pinzón Martín S, Dallabernardina P, Mende M, Lindner C, Wawrzinek R, Rademacher C, Seeberger PH, Breitling F, Bischoff FR, Wolf T, Loeffler FF. Automated Laser-Transfer Synthesis of High-Density Microarrays for Infectious Disease Screening. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2200359. [PMID: 35429012 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202200359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) is a rapid laser-patterning technique for high-throughput combinatorial synthesis directly on glass slides. A lack of automation and precision limits LIFT applications to simple proof-of-concept syntheses of fewer than 100 compounds. Here, an automated synthesis instrument is reported that combines laser transfer and robotics for parallel synthesis in a microarray format with up to 10 000 individual reactions cm- 2 . An optimized pipeline for amide bond formation is the basis for preparing complex peptide microarrays with thousands of different sequences in high yield with high reproducibility. The resulting peptide arrays are of higher quality than commercial peptide arrays. More than 4800 15-residue peptides resembling the entire Ebola virus proteome on a microarray are synthesized to study the antibody response of an Ebola virus infection survivor. Known and unknown epitopes that serve now as a basis for Ebola diagnostic development are identified. The versatility and precision of the synthesizer is demonstrated by in situ synthesis of fluorescent molecules via Schiff base reaction and multi-step patterning of precisely definable amounts of fluorophores. This automated laser transfer synthesis approach opens new avenues for high-throughput chemical synthesis and biological screening.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grigori Paris
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
- Department of System Dynamics and Friction Physics, Institute of Mechanics, Technical University of Berlin, Str. des 17. Juni 135, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jasmin Heidepriem
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexandra Tsouka
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yuxin Liu
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniela S Mattes
- Institute of Microstructure Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafe, Germany
| | - Sandra Pinzón Martín
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Pietro Dallabernardina
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Marco Mende
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Celina Lindner
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Robert Wawrzinek
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Christoph Rademacher
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, Vienna, 1090, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Max F. Perutz Laboratories GmbH, Dr.-Bohr-Gasse 9, Vienna, 1030, Austria
| | - Peter H Seeberger
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Frank Breitling
- Institute of Microstructure Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafe, Germany
| | - Frank Ralf Bischoff
- Department of Functional Genome Analysis, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 580, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Timo Wolf
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Department of Medicine, Goethe University Hospital, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Felix F Loeffler
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vengesai A, Kasambala M, Mutandadzi H, Mduluza-Jokonya TL, Mduluza T, Naicker T. Scoping review of the applications of peptide microarrays on the fight against human infections. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0248666. [PMID: 35077448 PMCID: PMC8789108 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This scoping review explores the use of peptide microarrays in the fight against infectious diseases. The research domains explored included the use of peptide microarrays in the mapping of linear B-cell and T cell epitopes, antimicrobial peptide discovery, immunosignature characterisation and disease immunodiagnostics. This review also provides a short overview of peptide microarray synthesis. METHODS Electronic databases were systematically searched to identify relevant studies. The review was conducted using the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for scoping reviews and data charting was performed using a predefined form. The results were reported by narrative synthesis in line with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines. RESULTS Ninety-five articles from 103 studies were included in the final data charting process. The majority (92. 0%) of the articles were published during 2010-2020 and were mostly from Europe (44.2%) and North America (34.7%). The findings were from the investigation of viral (45.6%), bacterial (32. 0%), parasitic (23.3%) and fungal (2. 0%) infections. Out of the serological studies, IgG was the most reported antibody type followed by IgM. The largest portion of the studies (77.7%) were related to mapping B-cell linear epitopes, 5.8% were on diagnostics, 5.8% reported on immunosignature characterisation and 8.7% reported on viral and bacterial cell binding assays. Two studies reported on T-cell epitope profiling. CONCLUSION The most important application of peptide microarrays was found to be B-cell epitope mapping or antibody profiling to identify diagnostic and vaccine targets. Immunosignatures identified by random peptide microarrays were found to be applied in the diagnosis of infections and interrogation of vaccine responses. The analysis of the interactions of random peptide microarrays with bacterial and viral cells using binding assays enabled the identification of antimicrobial peptides. Peptide microarray arrays were also used for T-cell linear epitope mapping which may provide more information for the design of peptide-based vaccines and for the development of diagnostic reagents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Vengesai
- Optics & Imaging, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | - Maritha Kasambala
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of KwaZulu-Natal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
| | - Hamlet Mutandadzi
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Parirenyatwa Hospital, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Tariro L. Mduluza-Jokonya
- Optics & Imaging, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
| | - Takafira Mduluza
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | - Thajasvarie Naicker
- Optics & Imaging, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Longet S, Mellors J, Carroll MW, Tipton T. Ebolavirus: Comparison of Survivor Immunology and Animal Models in the Search for a Correlate of Protection. Front Immunol 2021; 11:599568. [PMID: 33679690 PMCID: PMC7935512 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.599568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Ebola viruses are enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the Filoviridae family and can cause Ebola virus disease (EVD), a serious haemorrhagic illness with up to 90% mortality. The disease was first detected in Zaire (currently the Democratic Republic of Congo) in 1976. Since its discovery, Ebola virus has caused sporadic outbreaks in Africa and was responsible for the largest 2013-2016 EVD epidemic in West Africa, which resulted in more than 28,600 cases and over 11,300 deaths. This epidemic strengthened international scientific efforts to contain the virus and develop therapeutics and vaccines. Immunology studies in animal models and survivors, as well as clinical trials have been crucial to understand Ebola virus pathogenesis and host immune responses, which has supported vaccine development. This review discusses the major findings that have emerged from animal models, studies in survivors and vaccine clinical trials and explains how these investigations have helped in the search for a correlate of protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Longet
- Public Health England, National Infection Service, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Jack Mellors
- Public Health England, National Infection Service, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Miles W. Carroll
- Public Health England, National Infection Service, Salisbury, United Kingdom
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Tipton
- Public Health England, National Infection Service, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Heiss K, Heidepriem J, Fischer N, Weber LK, Dahlke C, Jaenisch T, Loeffler FF. Rapid Response to Pandemic Threats: Immunogenic Epitope Detection of Pandemic Pathogens for Diagnostics and Vaccine Development Using Peptide Microarrays. J Proteome Res 2020; 19:4339-4354. [PMID: 32892628 PMCID: PMC7640972 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Emergence and re-emergence of pathogens bearing the risk of becoming a pandemic threat are on the rise. Increased travel and trade, growing population density, changes in urbanization, and climate have a critical impact on infectious disease spread. Currently, the world is confronted with the emergence of a novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, responsible for yet more than 800 000 deaths globally. Outbreaks caused by viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2, HIV, Ebola, influenza, and Zika, have increased over the past decade, underlining the need for a rapid development of diagnostics and vaccines. Hence, the rational identification of biomarkers for diagnostic measures on the one hand, and antigenic targets for vaccine development on the other, are of utmost importance. Peptide microarrays can display large numbers of putative target proteins translated into overlapping linear (and cyclic) peptides for a multiplexed, high-throughput antibody analysis. This enabled for example the identification of discriminant/diagnostic epitopes in Zika or influenza and mapping epitope evolution in natural infections versus vaccinations. In this review, we highlight synthesis platforms that facilitate fast and flexible generation of high-density peptide microarrays. We further outline the multifaceted applications of these peptide array platforms for the development of serological tests and vaccines to quickly encounter pandemic threats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Heiss
- PEPperPRINT
GmbH, Rischerstrasse
12, 69123 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jasmin Heidepriem
- Max
Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Department of Biomolecular Systems, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Nico Fischer
- Section
Clinical Tropical Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, INF 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Laura K. Weber
- PEPperPRINT
GmbH, Rischerstrasse
12, 69123 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute
of Microstructure Technology, Karlsruhe
Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Christine Dahlke
- Division
of Infectious Diseases, First Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
- Department
of Clinical Immunology of Infectious Diseases, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
- German
Center for Infection Research, Partner Site
Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Riems, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Thomas Jaenisch
- Heidelberg
Institute of Global Health (HIGH), Heidelberg
University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 130, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Center
for Global Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
- Department
of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
| | - Felix F. Loeffler
- Max
Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Department of Biomolecular Systems, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| |
Collapse
|