Peptide-polymer biotherapeutic synthesis on novel cross-linked beads with “spatially tunable” and “isolated” functional sites

Green polymer chemistry: enzyme catalysis for polymer functionalization

Enzyme catalyzed reactions are green alternative approaches to functionalize polymers compared to conventional methods. This technique is especially advantageous due to the high selectivity, high efficiency, milder reaction conditions, and recyclability of enzymes. Selected reactions can be conducted under solventless conditions without the application of metal catalysts. Hence this process is becoming more recognized in the arena of biomedical applications, as the toxicity created by solvents and metal catalyst residues can be completely avoided. In this review we will discuss fundamental aspects of chemical reactions biocatalyzed by Candida antarctica lipase B, and their application to create new functionalized polymers, including the regio- and chemoselectivity of the reactions.

Green polymer chemistry VIII: synthesis of halo-ester-functionalized poly(ethylene glycol)s via enzymatic catalysis

Halo-ester-functionalized poly(ethylene glycol)s (PEGs) are successfully prepared by the transesterification of alkyl halo-esters with PEGs using Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB) as a biocatalyst under the solventless conditions. Transesterifications of chlorine, bromine, and iodine esters with tetraethylene glycol monobenzyl ether (BzTEG) are quantitative in less than 2.5 h. The transesterification of halo-esters with PEGs are complete in 4 h. (1) H and (13) C NMR spectroscopy with MALDI-ToF and ESI mass spectrometry confirm the structure and purity of the products. This method provides a convenient and "green" process to effectively produce halo-ester PEGs.

Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of PS-PPDC resin: a novel flexible cross-linked polymeric support for solid-phase organic synthesis

The present study describes the synthesis of different mole densities of poly(propylene glycol)dimethacrylate cross-linked resins using monomer units such as styrene and 4-chloromethyl styrene and its evaluation as an ideal support toward different stages of solid-phase peptide synthesis. Free radical generated aqueous suspension polymerization has been followed for polymerization and the formation of resin was characterized using infrared and carbon-13 spectroscopic techniques. Surface morphology of resin was examined by scanning electron microscopy. The polymerization reaction was investigated with respect to the effect of amount of cross-linking agent to verify the swelling, loading, and the mechanical stability of resin. Solvent imbibition abilities in commonly used solvents were measured and compared to commercially available Merrifield as well as reported styrene-acryloyloxyhydroxypropyl methacrylate-tripropyleneglycol diacrylate (SAT resins. The chemical inertness of the support was also checked with different reagents used for solid-phase peptide synthesis. The suitability of support was demonstrated by synthesizing biologically potent Endothelin class of linear peptides by Fmoc strategy and compared to SAT resin. The purities of synthetic peptides were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography and corresponding masses by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time of flight analysis.

Pegylation of antimicrobial peptides maintains the active peptide conformation, model membrane interactions, and antimicrobial activity while improving lung tissue biocompatibility following airway delivery

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have therapeutic potential, particularly for localized infections such as those of the lung. Here we show that airway administration of a pegylated AMP minimizes lung tissue toxicity while nevertheless maintaining antimicrobial activity. CaLL, a potent synthetic AMP (KWKLFKKIFKRIVQRIKDFLR) comprising fragments of LL-37 and cecropin A peptides, was N-terminally pegylated (PEG-CaLL). PEG-CaLL derivatives retained significant antimicrobial activity (50% inhibitory concentrations [IC(50)s] 2- to 3-fold higher than those of CaLL) against bacterial lung pathogens even in the presence of lung lining fluid. Circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy confirmed that conformational changes associated with the binding of CaLL to model microbial membranes were not disrupted by pegylation. Pegylation of CaLL reduced AMP-elicited cell toxicity as measured using in vitro lung epithelial primary cell cultures. Further, in a fully intact ex vivo isolated perfused rat lung (IPRL) model, airway-administered PEG-CaLL did not result in disruption of the pulmonary epithelial barrier, whereas CaLL caused an immediate loss of membrane integrity leading to pulmonary edema. All AMPs (CaLL, PEG-CaLL, LL-37, cecropin A) delivered to the lung by airway administration showed limited (<3%) pulmonary absorption in the IPRL with extensive AMP accumulation in lung tissue itself, a characteristic anticipated to be beneficial for the treatment of pulmonary infections. We conclude that pegylation may present a means of improving the lung biocompatibility of AMPs designed for the treatment of pulmonary infections.

Design and characterization of novel hybrid antimicrobial peptides based on cecropin A, LL-37 and magainin II

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a naturally occurring component of the innate immune response of many organisms and can have activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial species. In order to optimize and improve the direct antimicrobial effect of AMPs against a broad spectrum of bacterial species, novel synthetic hybrids were rationally designed from cecropin A, LL-37 and magainin II. AMPs were selected based on their α-helical secondary structure and fragments of these were analyzed and combined in silico to determine which hybrid peptides would form the best amphipathic cationic α-helices. Four hybrid peptides were synthesized (CaLL, CaMA, LLaMA and MALL) and evaluated for direct antimicrobial activity against a range of bacterial species (Bacillus anthracis, Burkholderia cepacia, Francisella tularensis LVS and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis) alongside the original 'parent' AMPs. The hybrid peptides showed greater antimicrobial effects than the parent AMPs (in one case a parent is completely ineffective while a hybrid based on it removes all traces of bacteria by 3h), although they also demonstrated higher hemolytic properties. Modifications were then carried out to the most toxic hybrid AMP (CaLL) to further improve the therapeutic index. Modifications made to the hybrid lowered hemolytic activity and also lowered antimicrobial activity by various degrees. Overall, this work highlights the potential for rational design and synthesis of improved AMPs that have the capability to be used therapeutically for treatment of bacterial infections.

Novel peptide therapeutics for treatment of infections

As antibiotic resistance increases worldwide, there is an increasing pressure to develop novel classes of antimicrobial compounds to fight infectious disease. Peptide therapeutics represent a novel class of therapeutic agents. Some, such as cationic antimicrobial peptides and peptidoglycan recognition proteins, have been identified from studies of innate immune effector mechanisms, while others are completely novel compounds generated in biological systems. Currently, only selected cationic antimicrobial peptides have been licensed, and only for topical applications. However, research using new approaches to identify novel antimicrobial peptide therapeutics, and new approaches to delivery and improving stability, will result in an increased range of peptide therapeutics available in the clinic for broader applications.