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Sanchez-Martinez ZV, Alpuche-Lazcano SP, Stuible M, Durocher Y. CHO cells for virus-like particle and subunit vaccine manufacturing. Vaccine 2024; 42:2530-2542. [PMID: 38503664 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, employed primarily for manufacturing monoclonal antibodies and other recombinant protein (r-protein) therapeutics, are emerging as a promising host for vaccine antigen production. This is exemplified by the recently approved CHO cell-derived subunit vaccines (SUV) against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV), as well as the enveloped virus-like particle (eVLP) vaccine against hepatitis B virus (HBV). Here, we summarize the design, production, and immunogenicity features of these vaccine and review the most recent progress of other CHO-derived vaccines in pre-clinical and clinical development. We also discuss the challenges associated with vaccine production in CHO cells, with a focus on ensuring viral clearance for eVLP products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zalma V Sanchez-Martinez
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Montreal, QC H4P 2R2, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Sergio P Alpuche-Lazcano
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Montreal, QC H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Matthew Stuible
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Montreal, QC H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Yves Durocher
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Montreal, QC H4P 2R2, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; PROTEO: The Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Structure, and Engineering, Université du Québec à Montréal, 201 Avenue du Président Kennedy, Montréal, QC H2X 3Y7, Canada.
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2
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Li C, Qian Q, Yan C, Lu M, Li L, Li P, Fan Z, Lei W, Shang K, Wang P, Wang J, Lu T, Huang Y, Yang H, Wei H, Han J, Xiao J, Chen F. HervD Atlas: a curated knowledgebase of associations between human endogenous retroviruses and diseases. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:D1315-D1326. [PMID: 37870452 PMCID: PMC10767980 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), as remnants of ancient exogenous retrovirus infected and integrated into germ cells, comprise ∼8% of the human genome. These HERVs have been implicated in numerous diseases, and extensive research has been conducted to uncover their specific roles. Despite these efforts, a comprehensive source of HERV-disease association still needs to be added. To address this gap, we introduce the HervD Atlas (https://ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/hervd/), an integrated knowledgebase of HERV-disease associations manually curated from all related published literature. In the current version, HervD Atlas collects 60 726 HERV-disease associations from 254 publications (out of 4692 screened literature), covering 21 790 HERVs (21 049 HERV-Terms and 741 HERV-Elements) belonging to six types, 149 diseases and 610 related/affected genes. Notably, an interactive knowledge graph that systematically integrates all the HERV-disease associations and corresponding affected genes into a comprehensive network provides a powerful tool to uncover and deduce the complex interplay between HERVs and diseases. The HervD Atlas also features a user-friendly web interface that allows efficient browsing, searching, and downloading of all association information, research metadata, and annotation information. Overall, the HervD Atlas is an essential resource for comprehensive, up-to-date knowledge on HERV-disease research, potentially facilitating the development of novel HERV-associated diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuidan Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Qiheng Qian
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- National Genomics Data Center, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Chenghao Yan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Mingming Lu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- National Genomics Data Center, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Lin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Pan Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhuojing Fan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- National Genomics Data Center, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Wenyan Lei
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Kang Shang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peihan Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jie Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Tianyi Lu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuting Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Hongwei Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Haobin Wei
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jingwan Han
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jingfa Xiao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- National Genomics Data Center, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Fei Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Genome and Precision Medicine Technologies, Beijing100101, China
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3
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Alpuche-Lazcano SP, Stuible M, Akache B, Tran A, Kelly J, Hrapovic S, Robotham A, Haqqani A, Star A, Renner TM, Blouin J, Maltais JS, Cass B, Cui K, Cho JY, Wang X, Zoubchenok D, Dudani R, Duque D, McCluskie MJ, Durocher Y. Preclinical evaluation of manufacturable SARS-CoV-2 spike virus-like particles produced in Chinese Hamster Ovary cells. COMMUNICATIONS MEDICINE 2023; 3:116. [PMID: 37612423 PMCID: PMC10447459 DOI: 10.1038/s43856-023-00340-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to evolve, novel vaccines need to be developed that are readily manufacturable and provide clinical efficacy against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. Virus-like particles (VLPs) presenting the spike antigen at their surface offer remarkable benefits over other vaccine antigen formats; however, current SARS-CoV-2 VLP vaccines candidates in clinical development suffer from challenges including low volumetric productivity, poor spike antigen density, expression platform-driven divergent protein glycosylation and complex upstream/downstream processing requirements. Despite their extensive use for therapeutic protein manufacturing and proven ability to produce enveloped VLPs, Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells are rarely used for the commercial production of VLP-based vaccines. METHODS Using CHO cells, we aimed to produce VLPs displaying the full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike. Affinity chromatography was used to capture VLPs released in the culture medium from engineered CHO cells expressing spike. The structure, protein content, and glycosylation of spikes in VLPs were characterized by several biochemical and biophysical methods. In vivo, the generation of neutralizing antibodies and protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection was tested in mouse and hamster models. RESULTS We demonstrate that spike overexpression in CHO cells is sufficient by itself to generate high VLP titers. These VLPs are evocative of the native virus but with at least three-fold higher spike density. In vivo, purified VLPs elicit strong humoral and cellular immunity at nanogram dose levels which grant protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection. CONCLUSIONS Our results show that CHO cells are amenable to efficient manufacturing of high titers of a potently immunogenic spike protein-based VLP vaccine antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio P Alpuche-Lazcano
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Matthew Stuible
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Bassel Akache
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Anh Tran
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - John Kelly
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Dr, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Sabahudin Hrapovic
- Aquatic and Crop Resources Development Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Anna Robotham
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Dr, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Arsalan Haqqani
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Dr, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Alexandra Star
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 100 Sussex Dr, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Tyler M Renner
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Julie Blouin
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Jean-Sébastien Maltais
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Brian Cass
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Kai Cui
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Jae-Young Cho
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Xinyu Wang
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 11421 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2M9, Canada
| | - Daria Zoubchenok
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Renu Dudani
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Diana Duque
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Michael J McCluskie
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Yves Durocher
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada.
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Glinšek K, Bozovičar K, Bratkovič T. CRISPR Technologies in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cell Line Engineering. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24098144. [PMID: 37175850 PMCID: PMC10179654 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24098144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line is a well-established platform for the production of biopharmaceuticals due to its ability to express complex therapeutic proteins with human-like glycopatterns in high amounts. The advent of CRISPR technology has opened up new avenues for the engineering of CHO cell lines for improved protein production and enhanced product quality. This review summarizes recent advances in the application of CRISPR technology for CHO cell line engineering with a particular focus on glycosylation modulation, productivity enhancement, tackling adventitious agents, elimination of problematic host cell proteins, development of antibiotic-free selection systems, site-specific transgene integration, and CRISPR-mediated gene activation and repression. The review highlights the potential of CRISPR technology in CHO cell line genome editing and epigenetic engineering for the more efficient and cost-effective development of biopharmaceuticals while ensuring the safety and quality of the final product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Glinšek
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Krištof Bozovičar
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tomaž Bratkovič
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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O’Brien SA, Hu WS. Cell culture bioprocessing - the road taken and the path forward. Curr Opin Chem Eng 2020; 30:100663. [PMID: 33391982 PMCID: PMC7773285 DOI: 10.1016/j.coche.2020.100663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cell culture processes are used to produce the vast majority of protein therapeutics, valued at over US$180 billion per annum worldwide. For more than a decade now, these processes have become highly productive. To further enhance capital efficiency, there has been an increase in the adoption of disposable apparatus and continuous processing, as well as a greater exploration of in-line sensing, various -omic tools, and cell engineering to enhance process controllability and product quality consistency. These feats in cell culture processing for protein biologics will help accelerate the bioprocess advancements for virus and cell therapy applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie A. O’Brien
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455-0132 USA
| | - Wei-Shou Hu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455-0132 USA
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Bačnik K, Kutnjak D, Jerič Kokelj B, Tuta N, Lončar T, Vogelsang M, Ravnikar M. Metagenomic characterization of parental and production CHO cell lines for detection of adventitious viruses. Biologicals 2020; 69:70-75. [PMID: 33246870 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2020.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral contamination is a major concern for biological products. Therefore, virus testing of raw materials and cells is essential for the safety of the final product. We used high-throughput sequencing to detect viral-like sequences in selected CHO cell lines. Our aim was to test various approaches of sample preparation, to establish a pipeline for metagenomic analysis and to characterize standard viral metagenome of production and parental CHO cell lines. The comparison of the metagenomics composition of the differently prepared samples showed that among four tested approaches sequencing of ribosomal RNA depleted total RNA is the most promising approach. The metagenomics investigation of one production and three parental CHO cell lines of diverse origin did not indicate the presence of adventitious viral agents in the investigated samples. The study revealed an expected background of virus-like nucleic acids in the samples, which originate from remains of expression vectors, endogenized viral elements and residuals of bacteriophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Bačnik
- National Institute of Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Systems Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Denis Kutnjak
- National Institute of Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Systems Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Barbara Jerič Kokelj
- National Institute of Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Systems Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nika Tuta
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, 1234, Mengeš, Slovenia
| | - Tan Lončar
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, 1234, Mengeš, Slovenia
| | - Matjaž Vogelsang
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, 1234, Mengeš, Slovenia
| | - Maja Ravnikar
- National Institute of Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Systems Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; University of Nova Gorica, Vipavska Cesta, 5000, Nova Gorica, Slovenia
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7
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Multiplex secretome engineering enhances recombinant protein production and purity. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1908. [PMID: 32313013 PMCID: PMC7170862 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15866-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Host cell proteins (HCPs) are process-related impurities generated during biotherapeutic protein production. HCPs can be problematic if they pose a significant metabolic demand, degrade product quality, or contaminate the final product. Here, we present an effort to create a "clean" Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell by disrupting multiple genes to eliminate HCPs. Using a model of CHO cell protein secretion, we predict that the elimination of unnecessary HCPs could have a non-negligible impact on protein production. We analyze the HCP content of 6-protein, 11-protein, and 14-protein knockout clones. These cell lines exhibit a substantial reduction in total HCP content (40%-70%). We also observe higher productivity and improved growth characteristics in specific clones. The reduced HCP content facilitates purification of a monoclonal antibody. Thus, substantial improvements can be made in protein titer and purity through large-scale HCP deletion, providing an avenue to increased quality and affordability of high-value biopharmaceuticals.
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Duroy PO, Bosshard S, Schmid-Siegert E, Neuenschwander S, Arib G, Lemercier P, Masternak J, Roesch L, Buron F, Girod PA, Xenarios I, Mermod N. Characterization and mutagenesis of Chinese hamster ovary cells endogenous retroviruses to inactivate viral particle release. Biotechnol Bioeng 2019; 117:466-485. [PMID: 31631325 PMCID: PMC7003738 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells used to produce biopharmaceutical proteins are known to contain type‐C endogenous retrovirus (ERV) sequences in their genome and to release retroviral‐like particles. Although evidence for their infectivity is missing, this has raised safety concerns. As the genomic origin of these particles remained unclear, we characterized type‐C ERV elements at the genome, transcriptome, and viral particle RNA levels. We identified 173 type‐C ERV sequences clustering into three functionally conserved groups. Transcripts from one type‐C ERV group were full‐length, with intact open reading frames, and cognate viral genome RNA was loaded into retroviral‐like particles, suggesting that this ERV group may produce functional viruses. CRISPR‐Cas9 genome editing was used to disrupt the gag gene of the expressed type‐C ERV group. Comparison of CRISPR‐derived mutations at the DNA and RNA level led to the identification of a single ERV as the main source of the release of RNA‐loaded viral particles. Clones bearing a Gag loss‐of‐function mutation in this ERV showed a reduction of RNA‐containing viral particle release down to detection limits, without compromising cell growth or therapeutic protein production. Overall, our study provides a strategy to mitigate potential viral particle contaminations resulting from ERVs during biopharmaceutical manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Olivier Duroy
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Present address: Selexis SA, Plan-les-Ouates, Switzerland
| | - Sandra Bosshard
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Present address: Lonza AG, Visp, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Philippe Lemercier
- Swiss-Prot Group, SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jacqueline Masternak
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lucien Roesch
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Flavien Buron
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Ioannis Xenarios
- Vital-IT Group, SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Present address: Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Mermod
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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