Selective cholangiography in laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Is Preoperative Evaluation of the Biliary Tree Necessary in Uncomplicated Gallstone Disease?

Aim:

To analyse if preoperative radiology is of value in patients with uncomplicated gallstone disease.

Material:

312 patients intended for laparoscopic cholecystectomy were randomly allocated to undergo preoperative radiology (intravenous cholangiography or magnetic resonance cholangiography) or to a control group. Intraoperative cholangiography was not used routinely in either group.

Results:

There was no bile duct injury and no difference in complication frequency between the two groups. The incidence of common bile duct stones was 3,8 % within the first postoperative year with no statistical difference between the two groups.

Conclusions:

Routine preoperative evaluation of the bile tree seems unnecessary before laparoscopic cholecystectomy in patients with uncomplicated gallstone disease.

Is endoscopic ultrasound needed as an add-on test for gallstone diseases without choledocholithiasis on multidetector computed tomography?

BACKGROUND

Choledocholithiasis commonly occurs in patients with symptomatic cholelithiasis. Although the recently developed multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) scan enhances the ability to diagnose choledocholithiasis, this technique is considered to have some limitations for evaluating the common bile duct (CBD).

AIM

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the necessity for performing endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) as an add-on test to detect choledocholithiasis in patients who were diagnosed with gallstone disease without choledocholithiasis based on MDCT.

METHODS

Three hundred twenty patients with gallstone disease and no evidence of CBD stones according to MDCT underwent EUS between March 2006 and April 2011. If CBD stones were suspected based on the EUS results or clinical symptoms, a final diagnosis was obtained by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The patients' medical records were retrospectively analyzed based on clinical symptoms, biochemical findings, and results of the imaging studies.

RESULTS

CBD stones were not detected with MDCT in 41 (12.8 %) out of 320 patients with gallstone disease. The causes for these discrepancies could be attributed to small stone size (n = 19, 46.3 %), isodensity (n = 18, 43.9 %), impacted stones (n = 1, 2.4 %), and misdiagnosis (n = 3, 7.3 %). If EUS were used as a triage tool, unnecessary diagnostic ERCP and its complications could be avoided for 245 (76.6 %) patients.

CONCLUSIONS

MDCT may not be a primary technique for detecting CBD stones. EUS should be performed instead as an add-on test to evaluate the CBD for patients with gallstone-related disease. In particular, EUS should be routinely recommended for patients with abnormal liver enzyme levels, pancreatitis, and dilated CBD.

Intraoperative cholangiography facilitates simple transcystic clearance of ductal stones in units without expertise for laparoscopic bile duct surgery

BACKGROUND

In the absence of facilities and expertise for laparoscopic bile duct exploration (LBDE), most patients with suspected ductal calculi undergo preoperative endoscopic duct clearance. Intraoperative cholangiography (IOC) is not performed at the subsequent laparoscopic cholecystectomy. This study aimed to investigate the rate of successful duct clearance after simple transcystic manipulations.

METHODS

This prospective study investigated 1,408 patients over 13 years in a unit practicing single-session management of biliary calculi. For the great majority, IOC was attempted. Abnormalities were dealt with by flushing of the duct, glucagon injection, Dormia basket trawling, choledochoscopic transcystic exploration, or choledochotomy.

RESULTS

Of 1,056 cholangiograms performed (75%), 287 were abnormal (27.2%). Surgical trainees, operating under supervision, successfully performed 24% of all cholangiograms. Of 396 patients admitted with biliary emergencies, 94.1% had abnormal cholangiograms. Of the 287 patients with abnormal IOCs, 9.4% required no intervention, 18% were clear after glucagon and flushing, and 13% were cleared using Dormia basket trawling under fluoroscopy. A total of 95 patients required formal LBDE, and 2 required postoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). No postoperative ERCP for retained stones was required after simple transcystic manipulation. Eight conversions occurred, one during a transcystic exploration. Follow-up evaluation continued for as long as 6 years in some cases. Two patients had recurrent stones after LBDE and a clear postoperative tube cholangiogram.

CONCLUSION

In this series, 10% of the abnormal cholangiograms occurred in patients without preoperative risk factors for bile duct stones. Altogether, 88 IOCs (31%) were cleared after either simple flushing or trawling with a Dormia basket. Formal LBDE was not required for 40% of abnormal cholangiograms. Simple transcystic manipulations to clear the bile ducts justify the use of routine IOC in units without laparoscopic biliary expertise.

Spiral computed tomography-intravenous cholangiography with three-dimensional reconstructions for imaging the biliary tree

This study aimed to assess the ability of CT-i.v. cholangiography to show the perihilar biliary and cystic duct anatomy and to assess the relative performance of axial, maximum intensity projection and surface rendered displays. We also assessed the correlation between serum bilirubin levels and adequacy of biliary opacification. Spiral CT was carried out following infusion of 100 mL of Biliscopin in 181 patients with suspected biliary disease. The display of biliary anatomy was of high quality, with 91% of patients having good opacification of at least first-order bile ducts and 84% having good opacification of at least third-order right and left hepatic ducts. The quality of biliary opacification correlated inversely to serum bilirubin levels, with levels above two to three times the normal value being associated with lower rates of good opacification. Maximum intensity projection and surface rendered reformats aided anatomical interpretation to a similar degree. The relative frequency of types of perihilar branching patterns and cystic duct junctional anatomy correlated closely to those reported from previous anatomical studies.

Predição da coledocolitíase pela associação de indicadores clínicos e laboratoriais em dois momentos do pré-operatório da colecistectomia

OBJETIVO: O propósito deste estudo foi determinar a probabilidade de ocorrência de coledocolitíase através do estudo da associação de indicadores clínicos e laboratoriais desta doença em dois momentos do pré-operatório de colecistectomia. MÉTODO: Entre março de 2001 e março de 2002, 48 pacientes consecutivos com colelitíase foram submetidos a colecistectomia e colangiografia intra-operatória (CIO). Os pacientes foram divididos em dois grupos, sendo o grupo A constituído por 13 pacientes com coledocolitíase e o grupo B por 35 pacientes sem esta doença. Os pacientes foram investigados quanto aos indicadores clínicos e laboratoriais da coledocolitíase, analisados em dois períodos, tomando como ponto de corte as 48 horas que precederam a cirurgia. Posteriormente, estes indicadores pré-operatórios foram associados na equação da regressão logística em diferentes combinações. RESULTADOS: Utilizando a equação da regressão logística, constatou-se que a associação de dois indicadores clínicos em ambos os períodos (icterícia e sinal de Murphy) e dois laboratoriais ( nível de corte da gama glutamil transpeptidase e bilirrubina direta 48 horas antes da cirurgia) foi a mais adequada para a predição da coledocolitíase. Os valores obtidos por esta equação mostraram concordância com os grupos A e B, de 95,6%, e discordância de 4,4% (p= 0,0000007 e k = 0,89). Esta equação mostrou sensibilidade de 92,3%, especificidade de 97,0%, valor preditivo positivo de 92,3% e valor preditivo negativo de 97%. Estes valores foram próximos aos obtidos pela CIO, que mostrou concordância com os grupos estudados de 95,8%, e discordância de 4,2% (k = 0,90). CONCLUSÃO: Considerando os resultados obtidos, recomenda-se a associação de indicadores da coledocolitíase na equação da regressão logística para estabelecer a probabilidade de ocorrer coledocolitíase associada à colelitíase. A utilização desta equação pode orientar melhor a conduta diagnóstica e terapêutica nesta doença.

Is laparoscopic intraoperative cholangiogram a matter of routine?

BACKGROUND

Intraoperative cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy reveals the anatomy of the biliary tree and any stones contained within it. The use of intraoperative cholangiography may be routine for all laparoscopic cholecystectomy. An alternative approach is a selective policy, performing intraoperative cholangiography only for those cases in which choledocholithiasis is suspected on clinical grounds, or those for which the anatomy appears unclear at operation. The literature pertaining to both approaches is reviewed, to delineate their respective merits.

METHODS

Relevant articles in English were identified from the Medline database, and reviewed.

RESULTS

The literature reviewed consisted of retrospective analyses. Overall the incidence of unsuspected retained stones was 4%, but only 15% of these would go on to cause clinical problems. The incidence of complete transection of the common bile duct was rare for both routine and selective intraoperative cholangiography policies, and did not differ between them. Rates of minor bile duct injury did not differ between groups, but was more likely to be recognized in the routine group than the selective (P = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Routine intraoperative cholangiography yields very little useful clinical information over and above that which is obtained with selective policies. Large numbers of unnecessary intraoperative cholangiography are performed under routine intraoperative cholangiography policy, and therefore a selective policy is advocated.

Colangiografia peroperatória sistemática em colecistectomia videolaparoscópica

OBJETIVO: Analisar os resultados de colangiografias peroperatórias (CPO), realizadas sistematicamente durante colecistectomias videolaparoscópicas (CVL). MÉTODO: No período de janeiro de 1998 a dezembro de 1999, foram realizadas CVL em 250 pacientes não selecionados, 65 (26%) do sexo masculino e 185 (74%) do sexo feminino, independente da presença ou não de sinais clínicos, laboratoriais, ultra-sonográficos ou de outros métodos diagnósticos, indicativos de coledocolitíase ou outras doenças da via biliar principal. RESULTADOS: A CPO pôde ser realizada em 237 (94,6%) pacientes. Foram encontradas 31 (13%) alterações, entre as quais seis (2,5%) casos de coledocolitíase e 25 (10,5%) casos de anomalias anatômicas. CONCLUSÃO: A CPO, durante a CVL, mostrou-se um procedimento seguro, sem complicações relacionadas ao exame, definindo a anatomia, prevenindo as lesões biliares e permitindo a detecção de coledocolitíase insuspeitada.

Evaluation of operative cholangiography in 2043 patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a case for the selective operative cholangiogram

BACKGROUND

There is still some controversy over whether to use laparoscopic operative cholangiograms routinely (RLOC) or selectively (SLOC). Due to their high cost as well as other issues, in March 1997 we converted from RLOC to SLOC. The purpose of this study was to validate that decision.

METHODS

The results of 2043 laparoscopic cholecystectomies (LC) were compiled and analyzed. The results of RLOC in 1556 patients undergoing LC from March 1990 through February 1997 were compared to the results of SLOC in 16 patients undergoing LC from March 1989 through February 1990 and 471 patients undergoing LC from March 1997 through December 1998. The literature was reviewed and data were compiled. Reasons that are typically given for operative cholangiograms (OC) were collected and scrutinized. Finally, cost surveys for RLOC and related procedures were obtained.

RESULTS

Overall, laparoscopic operative cholangiogram (LOC) was attempted in 1661 patients and was successful in 1656 cases (99.7%). Bile duct stones (BDS) were evident in 166 patients. Laparoscopic bile duct exploration (LBDE) was attempted in all cases. None were referred for preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). In the RLOC group, evidence of BDS was observed in 136 patients (9%). Forty-two were unsuspected (2.8%) and five were false positive (0.3%). In a collection of other RLOC studies, the average rate of unsuspected BDS was 2.9%, while the average rate of false positive cholangiograms was 1.6%. In the SLOC group, LOC was indicated in 139 of 487 patients (28.6%). None of the patients who did not have a LOC developed symptomatic residual BDS in < or = 11 years of follow-up. In a large collection of other SLOC studies, the rate of symptomatic residual BDS was 0.3%. A cost survey in February 1997 revealed that the average minimum global charge (MGC) for an OC was $1283.21; for a transcystic duct LBDE it was $1055.10, and for a transcholedochal LBDE it was $3263.61 [corrected]. The MGC for an ERCP with papillotomy was $4303.00. Thus, to avoid one patient with symptomatic residual BDS, 354 unnecessary procedures (333 RLOC, 18 LBDE, and three postoperative ERCP) costing $473,927.52 would be performed. There were no false negatives, bile duct injuries, or other complications attributable to RLOC or SLOC.

CONCLUSIONS

The increased morbidity and cost of RLOC to avoid symptomatic residual BDS is not justified. All other reasons given for RLOC are either flawed or indicate that the procedure can be safely employed selectively. SLOC is an effective method of verifying suspected BDS and is safer and less expensive than RLOC.

Assessment of the biliary tract by ultrasonography and cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a prospective study

OBJECTIVE

The introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (Lap-chol) has induced routine cholangiography to map the biliary tree and identify common bile duct (CBD) stones. However, the use of more selective criteria for performing intraoperative cholangiography (IOC), drawbacks of IOC and experience with laparoscopic ultrasonography (LU) re-introduced intraoperative ultrasonography for the CBD. The purpose of this study was to compare the accuracy of LU and IOC to identify the anatomy of the CBD and the presence of stones.

METHODS

A total of 50 unselected patients undergoing elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy were evaluated by LU and IOC. Stones were found in three patients by IOC and could be confirmed by ultrasonography and CBD exploration in two.

RESULTS

Anatomic definition of the biliary tract and success of the procedure was better for LU (90 and 98%) than IOC (86 and 72%).

CONCLUSION

For Surgical groups with experience in LU this technique appears to become the standard technique to identify the anatomy of the CBD and assessment of CBD stones.

Audit of methods of laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

The operation of laparoscopic cholecystectomy began the modern era of laparoscopic surgery. Refinements in technique continue to appear. The techniques currently favoured by British surgeons have been reviewed.

METHODS

A questionnaire-based survey was carried out among surgeons with a special interest in minimal access surgery. The data collected were entered into a database and analysed. Current literature relating to surgical technique was reviewed.

RESULTS

Many aspects were evaluated and the results have shown that there is no uniform approach. It is interesting that only 30.8 per cent of surgeons use the open (Hasson) technique for peritoneal access. In addition, the use of intraoperative cholangiography continues to vary, with 65.8 per cent using the technique in selected cases. Fascial repair is not undertaken by 12.2 per cent of surgeons.

CONCLUSION

Some trends are clearly discernible. There is a greater willingness than previously to perform intraoperative cholangiography, but the consensus seems to be against performing it in all cases. Similarly, British surgeons seem to be largely unimpressed by the dangers of the Veress needle; the Hasson technique has not been widely adopted. The need to prevent port-site herniation seems to be generally accepted, with most surgeons performing fascial repair.

Routine laparoscopic cholangiography: a means of avoiding unnecessary endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

Controversy exists between routine and selective on-table cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) has been suggested as first-line investigation in patients with suspected duct stones. We report a series of 154 on-table cholangiograms (OTC) and consider the requirements for ERCP according to historical and biochemical markers. A retrospective review of 154 consecutive patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy with OTC was performed. Historical and biochemical markers of duct stones were examined with respect to the necessity of ERCP. OTC was performed, with a 100% success rate, and took approximately 10 min. Eight (5.2%) of the patients had duct stones. Only one did not have preoperative indicators of duct stones. Sixty-six patients had preoperative markers suggesting the need for ERCP. According to the OTC findings, 59 (89.4%) of these patients would have undergone unnecessary ERCP. Routine laparoscopic OTC is advocated because it maintains expertise in the technique and avoids unnecessary ERCP with its attendant costs and complications.

Endoscopic ultrasonography versus cholangiography for the diagnosis of choledocholithiasis

BACKGROUND

Choledocholithiasis is a major source of morbidity among patients undergoing cholecystectomy for symptomatic gallstones. There is no consensus on the best approach to diagnosing bile duct stones. We compared the safety, accuracy, diagnostic yield, and cost of EUS- and ERCP-based approaches.

METHODS

Sixty-four consecutive pre- and post-cholecystectomy patients referred for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) for suspected choledocholithiasis were prospectively evaluated in a blinded fashion. All were stratified into risk groups using predefined criteria. Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) and ERCP were sequentially performed by two endoscopists.

RESULTS

The success rates of EUS and ERCP were 98% and 94%, respectively. The accuracy of EUS for diagnosing choledocholithiasis was 94%. EUS provided an additional or alternative diagnosis to bile duct stones in 21% of patients. The complication rate of EUS was significantly lower than diagnostic ERCP. An EUS-based strategy costs less than diagnostic ERCP in patients with low, moderate, or intermediate risk.

CONCLUSIONS

EUS is comparably accurate, but safer and less costly than ERCP for evaluating patients with suspected choledocholithiasis. It is useful in patients with an increased risk of having common bile duct stones based on clinical criteria and those with contraindications for or prior unsuccessful ERCP. EUS may enable selective performance of ERCP and improve the cost-effectiveness of diagnosing choledocholithiasis.

Ultra-sonografia intra-operatória durante colecistectomia laparoscópica

Durante um período de sete meses, em noventa pacientes submetidos à colecistectomia laparoscópica foi realizada ultra-sonografia intra-operatória e, em 81 pacientes, a colangiografia intra-operatória foi possível. A ultra-sonografia laparoscópica (USL) foi realizada através dos trocartes umbilical e epigástrico, sem mobilização duodenal e após a colangiografia sistemática. A USL detectou coledocolitíase em 11 pacientes (12,2%), embora apenas seis (6,6%) destes pacientes tivessem este diagnóstico antes da cirurgia. A colangiografia diagnosticou coledocolitíase em 8,8% dos casos. As vias biliares foram visualizadas pela USL em todos os casos. Durante a colecistectomia laparoscópica, a ultra-sonografia intra-operatória é uma técnica simples e eficiente na detecção de cálculos na via biliar principal.

Laparoscopic cholangiography: a prospective study

BACKGROUND

The place of cholangiography has been controversial in the conventional and now in the laparoscopic setting. The aim of this study was to evaluate laparoscopic cholangiography and compare use of a portable C-arm image intensifier with conventional radiography.

METHODS

One hundred and ninety-seven consecutive patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy were randomized before operation to cholangiography by either C-arm image intensifier or conventional radiography. Data were collected on a pro forma completed immediately after the operation.

RESULTS

Cholangiography was successful in 93.0 per cent of patients. Cholangiography with an image intensifier was significantly faster. In 19 patients the ductal system was obscured by a cannula; in 17 of these cases a metal cannula was used. In 31.6 per cent of patients the clip on the cystic duct was within 1 cm or less of the common bile duct (CBD).

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopic cholangiography is a safe procedure. Use of an image intensifier should be the preferred method of obtaining images. Metal cannulas are more likely to obscure the ductal system. The proximity of the clip on the cystic duct to the CBD highlights the potential for injury caused by electrocautery or erroneous clip application.

Prospective comparison of endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the detection of bile duct stones

BACKGROUND

Conventional ultrasonography is used widely in the investigation of gallstone disease but is limited in the detection of bile duct stones due to poor visualization of the distal bile duct. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is currently the investigation of choice for suspected choledocholithiasis, but is not without morbidity. Endoscopic ultrasonography clearly visualizes the entire extrahepatic biliary tree and avoids the need for ERCP in many patients.

METHODS

Some 50 patients with suspected duct stones underwent endoscopic ultrasonography followed by ERCP. All cholangiograms were performed or interpreted by a second doctor blinded to the results of endoscopic ultrasonography.

RESULTS

Both tests were successful in 46 patients; both tests failed in two patients and ERCP alone failed in a further two. Duct stones were confirmed in 24 patients. Sensitivity (95 per cent confidence interval (c.i.)) of ERCP and endoscopic ultrasonography in identifying these stones was 79 (58-93) per cent and 88 (68-97) per cent respectively; specificity (95 per cent c.i.) was 92 (75-99) per cent and 96 (80-100) per cent.

CONCLUSION

Endoscopic ultrasonography accurately identifies bile duct stones. It is recommended in all patients with a risk of duct stones but especially in those with a history of ERCP-induced pancreatitis, when other pathology is suspected, when ERCP has failed, when bile duct abnormalities are suspected during pregnancy and in patients with acute pancreatitis.

The management of choledocholithiasis in children in the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Although laparoscopic cholecystectomy has become the procedure of choice for gallbladder removal in children, the treatment of children who have choledocholithiasis remains unclear. For adults who have suspected choledocholithiasis, preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is a well-described and effective approach, however, its use for common bile duct stones in children has not been defined. The authors reviewed the records of 131 consecutive children undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy on two surgical services to define the efficacy of ERCP followed by laparoscopic cholecystectomy in managing choledocholithiasis in children. Fourteen children were suspected of having common duct stones noted on preoperative ultrasound scan and laboratory data. At ERCP, six children had no stones visualized; eight had stones and underwent stone extraction and sphincter dilation or sphincterotomy. All 14 underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy a mean of 3.8 days after ERCP. None of the 14 had evidence of retained stones. Only one of 117 children undergoing primary laparoscopic cholecystectomy had unsuspected common bile duct stones and was treated with laparoscopic common bile duct exploration and stone removal. A management plan incorporating ERCP followed by early laparoscopic cholecystectomy is a safe and effective strategy for children who have choledocholithiasis.

Intraoperative ultrasonography (IOUS) during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of intraoperative ultrasonography (IOUS), a new method of imaging the biliary tree and related structures, during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

METHOD

An IOUS probe (Aloka, Tokyo, Japan) with a 7.5-MHz linear-array transducer was used during cholecystectomy in 124 patients with symptomatic cholelithiasis (45 men, 79 women; mean age, 48 +/- 14 years).

RESULTS

The examination of the common bile duct (CBD) was excellent in 117 patients but unsatisfactory in 7 cases (5.6%) at the level of the head of the pancreas. In 5 patients, IOUS showed unsuspected choledocholithiasis: a subsequent intraoperational cholangiogram confirmed this. In five cases IOUS was able to help the surgeon to localize a Calot area obscured by inflammation. Postoperatively, one patient had an injury of the cystic duct stump: a nasobiliary tube resolved the bile leakage after 7 days. Another patient was submitted to postoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) for a choledocholithiasis recognized by a trans-cystic-tube cholangiography: the stone was suspected but not demonstrated either by laparoscopic IOUS or by intraoperative cholangiography. During the follow-up period, one patient had an episode of acute pancreatitis. ERCP showed a small stone wedged in the sphincter of Oddi.

CONCLUSIONS

IOUS may be a real alternative to cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy since it is safer and offers a complete examination of the biliary tree. It has some disadvantages which can solved by additional experience.

Routine preoperative infusion cholangiography at elective cholecystectomy: a prospective study in 694 patients

The role of preoperative infusion cholangiography (PIC) before elective cholecystectomy has yet to be defined. Between 1985 and 1991 PIC was performed routinely in 694 patients with median (range) age of 52 (17-85) years with biliary calculus disease 1 or 4 days before elective cholecystectomy. Satisfactory opacification of the biliary system was achieved in 90.1 per cent and mild to moderate adverse reactions to the infusion of contrast medium occurred in 0.9 per cent of patients. Peroperative cholangiography (POC) in 43 of 499 patients with a normal PIC was normal. The presence of common bile duct stones was confirmed in 34 of 36 patients with prominent stones at bile duct exploration and in 8 of 26 with suspected stones at PIC. Bile duct dilatation (median diameter 10 mm) without concomitant stones was seen at PIC and confirmed at POC in 20 patients. Bile duct anomalies were found or suspected in 35 patients at PIC and were confirmed in six by POC (n = 5), or during the cholecystectomy making the anomaly incidence 0.9 per cent. Information provided by the PIC was not of crucial importance for safe execution of cholecystectomy in any patient, while a single (minor) bile duct lesion (1 of 694; 0.1 per cent) could be ascribed to severe pericholecystitis. The results of this study suggest that routine PIC is not warranted. However, PIC is an alternative to selective preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiography or selective POC. PIC needs to be supported by POC in approximately 20 per cent of patients (in case of absent or poor opacification of the bile ducts or suspicion of stones or anomalies at PIC).

Prospective evaluation of ultrasonography and liver function tests for preoperative assessment of the bile duct

Current means of predicting the presence of bile duct stones are sensitive but produce a large number of false-positive results, potentially leading to added morbidity from unnecessary invasive investigation. This study prospectively assessed 545 patients with gallbladder stones, including 55 patients with bile duct stones, to refine criteria for further investigation of the bile duct. The sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were calculated for bile duct dilatation (diameter abnormal if larger than 5 mm below age 50 years, normal value increasing by 1 mm per decade) and elevation of three liver function tests, singly or in combination. Depending on the number of abnormalities used the sensitivity ranged from 46 to 96 per cent and the positive predictive value from 35 to 77 per cent. All groupings gave at least 96 per cent negative predictive value for the absence of stones but none combined both high sensitivity and positive predictive value. The specificity was improved if the tests were done on the working day before operation. Refining criteria for predicting bile duct stones allows the selective use of cholangiography and may reduce the number of negative cholangiograms.

Prospective evaluation in 121 consecutive unselected patients undergoing laparoscopic treatment of choledocholithiasis

Laparoscopic common bile duct (CBD) exploration was attempted in 115 of 121 consecutive unselected patients with choledocholithiasis (mean age 69 (range 21-92) years) found during routine intraoperative cholangiography. The CBD was successfully cleared of all stones in 100 patients (87 per cent). Ten of 11 patients referred for surgery after failure of endoscopic sphincterotomy had complete laparoscopic choledocholithiasis. Eleven patients (10 per cent) required conversion to open CBD exploration, and laparoscopic exploration was not attempted in six (5 per cent) because of inflammation or fibrosis. Postoperative endoscopic sphincterotomy was required in four patients (4 per cent) for retained stones after laparoscopic exploration. There were no postoperative deaths (39 per cent of patients were aged 75 years or more). Routine intraoperative cholangiography, and when required laparoscopic CBD exploration, should be compared in randomized trials with preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiography in patients with suspected choledocholithiasis.

[Selective intraoperative cholangiography in laparoscopic cholecystectomy]

Routine use of intraoperative cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy is still widely advocated and standard in many departments; however, it is controversial. We have developed a new diagnostic strategy for the detection of bile duct stones. The concept is based on an ultrasound examination and on screening for the presence of six risk indicators of choledocholithiasis. A total of 120 patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy were prospectively screened for the presence of these six risk indicators: history of jaundice, history of pancreatitis, hyperbilirubinemia, hyperamylasemia, dilated bile duct, and unclear ultrasound findings. The sensitivity of ultrasound and intraoperative cholangiography in diagnosing bile duct stones was also evaluated. For the detection of bile duct stones, the sensitivity was 77% for ultrasound and 100% for intraoperative cholangiography. Twenty percent of all patients had at least one risk indicator. The presence of a risk indicator correlated significantly with the presence of choledocholithiasis (P < 0.01, chi-square test). The negative predictive value of the total set of risk indicators was 100%. Following our diagnostic concept, we would have avoided 80% of intraoperative cholangiographies without missing a stone in the bile duct. This study lends further support to the view that routine use of intraoperative cholangiography is not necessary.

Role of intraoperative cholangiography in laparoscopic cholecystectomy

The results of a policy of selective cholangiography were assessed in 400 patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) was performed in 81 patients (20 per cent) of whom 31 (38 per cent) showed definite or possible evidence of stones in the bile duct. Seventeen of the 400 patients underwent intraoperative cholangiography and the majority of these (12) were normal. After a minimum follow-up of 1 year, 17 patients (4 per cent) have had ERCP for suspected residual duct stones. Eight (2 per cent) of these revealed stones and all were successfully treated with sphincterotomy and duct clearance. Preoperative and postoperative ERCP was not associated with mortality or major morbidity. No major duct injury occurred and none was diagnosed within 2 years of operation. Routine intraoperative cholangiography is not a necessary part of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the presence of an efficient and safe ERCP service.

Management of common bile duct stones in the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy

PURPOSE

To assess the safety and efficacy of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

METHODS

In patients suspected of harboring common duct stones, we performed ERCP prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Indications included jaundice, gallstone pancreatitis, elevated liver function tests, and visualizing a common duct stone and/or a dilated common duct on ultrasonography. Data were analyzed retrospectively.

RESULTS

Of 217 patients undergoing LC, 37 (17%) had ERCP with or without endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES). Of these 37, common duct stones were noted in 19 patients (51%). Only 1 of 11 (9%) patients with mild gallstone pancreatitis had choledocholithiasis. The only complication following ERCP was pancreatitis in 1 patient who underwent uneventful LC. There were no deaths in the entire series.

CONCLUSIONS

ERCP and ES is a safe and effective method of clearing the common duct of stones prior to LC. Patients with mild gallstone pancreatitis do not require ERCP prior to LC.

Management of bile duct stones in the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy

The introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy has resulted in increased options for the management of bile duct stones and has stimulated a fundamental reappraisal of the situation before the laparoscopic era. This article reviews the natural history of bile duct stones and details the different ways in which they may now be treated. New areas of controversy are highlighted and the need for further studies is emphasized.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy

After laparoscopic cholecystectomy, the patient can expect a hospital stay of < 2 days and a return to work within 2 weeks. The associated operative mortality rate is low at < 0.2 per cent. The increased incidence of bile duct injury with the laparoscopic technique compared with open cholecystectomy is a cause for concern but such injuries should decrease with proper training in laparoscopic surgery. The use of operative cholangiography (whether routine, selective or never) is controversial but there is no evidence that routine cholangiography will prevent major bile duct injury.