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Moreira F, Carmo H, Guedes de Pinho P, Bastos MDL. Doping detection in animals: A review of analytical methodologies published from 1990 to 2019. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:474-504. [PMID: 33440053 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Despite the impressive innate physical abilities of horses, camels, greyhounds, or pigeons, doping agents might be administered to these animals to improve their performance. To control these illegal practices, anti-doping analytical methodologies have been developed. This review compiles the analytical methods that have been published for the detection of prohibited substances administered to animals involved in sports over 30 years. Relevant papers meeting the search criteria that discussed analytical methods aiming to detect and/or quantify doping substances in animal biological matrices published from 1990 to 2019 were considered. A total of 317 studies were included, of which 298 were related to horses, demonstrating significant advances toward the development of doping detection methods for equine sports. However, analytical methods for the detection of doping agents in sports involving other species are lacking. Due to enhanced accuracy and specificity, chromatographic analysis coupled to mass spectrometry detection is preferred over immunoassays. Regarding biological matrices, blood and urine remain the first choice, although alternative biological matrices, such as hair and feces, have been considered. With the increasing number and type of drugs used as doping agents, the analytes addressed in the published papers are diverse. It is very important to continue to detect and quantify these drugs, recognizing those that are most frequently used, in order to punish the abusers, protect animals' health, and ensure a healthier and genuine competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Moreira
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Departamento de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Área Técnico-Científica de Farmácia, Escola Superior de Saúde, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Helena Carmo
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Guedes de Pinho
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Chan GHM, Ho ENM, Leung DKK, Wong KS, Wan TSM. Targeted Metabolomics Approach To Detect the Misuse of Steroidal Aromatase Inhibitors in Equine Sports by Biomarker Profiling. Anal Chem 2015; 88:764-72. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- George Ho Man Chan
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong
Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Emmie Ngai Man Ho
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong
Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - David Kwan Kon Leung
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong
Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Kin Sing Wong
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong
Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Terence See Ming Wan
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong
Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
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Metabolic studies of oxyguno in horses. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 891:190-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Kwok WH, Kwok KY, Leung DKK, Leung GNW, Wong CHF, Wong JKY, Wan TSM. In vitro metabolism studies of desoxy-methyltestosterone (DMT) and its five analogues, and in vivo metabolism of desoxy-vinyltestosterone (DVT) in horses. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2015; 50:994-1005. [PMID: 28338272 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Revised: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The positive findings of norbolethone in 2002 and tetrahydrogestrinone in 2003 in human athlete samples confirmed that designer steroids were indeed being abused in human sports. In 2005, an addition to the family of designer steroids called 'Madol' [also known as desoxy-methyltestosterone (DMT)] was seized by government officials at the US-Canadian border. Two years later, a positive finding of DMT was reported in a mixed martial arts athlete's sample. It is not uncommon that doping agents used in human sports would likewise be abused in equine sports. Designer steroids would, therefore, pose a similar threat to the horseracing and equestrian communities. This paper describes the in vitro metabolism studies of DMT and five of its structural analogues with different substituents at the 17α position (RH, ethyl, vinyl, ethynyl and 2 H3 -methyl). In addition, the in vivo metabolism of desoxy-vinyltestosterone (DVT) in horses will be presented. The in vitro studies revealed that the metabolic pathways of DMT and its analogues occurred predominantly in the A-ring by way of a combination of enone formation, hydroxylation and reduction. Additional biotransformation involving hydroxylation of the 17α-alkyl group was also observed for DMT and some of its analogues. The oral administration experiment revealed that DVT was extensively metabolised and the parent drug was not detected in urine. Two in vivo metabolites, derived respectively from (1) hydroxylation of the A-ring and (2) di-hydroxylation together with A-ring double-bond reduction, could be detected in urine up to a maximum of 46 h after administration. Another in vivo metabolite, derived from hydroxylation of the A-ring with additional double-bond reduction and di-hydroxylation of the 17α-vinyl group, could be detected in urine up to a maximum of 70 h post-administration. All in vivo metabolites were excreted mainly as glucuronides and were also detected in the in vitro studies. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai Him Kwok
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, NT, Hong Kong, China
| | - Karen Y Kwok
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, NT, Hong Kong, China
| | - David K K Leung
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, NT, Hong Kong, China
| | - Gary N W Leung
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, NT, Hong Kong, China
| | - Colton H F Wong
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, NT, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jenny K Y Wong
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, NT, Hong Kong, China
| | - Terence S M Wan
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, NT, Hong Kong, China
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Kwok WH, Leung GNW, Wan TSM, Curl P, Schiff PJ. Metabolic study of androsta-1,4,6-triene-3,17-dione in horses using liquid chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2015; 152:142-54. [PMID: 26031748 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Revised: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Androsta-1,4,6-triene-3,17-dione (ATD) is an irreversible steroidal aromatase inhibitor and is marketed as a supplement. It has been reported to effectively reduce estrogen biosynthesis and significantly increase the levels of endogenous steroids such as dihydrotestosterone and testosterone in human. ATD abuses have been reported in human sports. Its metabolism in human has been studied, and the in vitro metabolic study of ATD in horses has been reported, however, little is known about its biotransformation and elimination in horses. This paper describes the in vitro and in vivo metabolism studies of ATD in horses, with an objective of identifying the target metabolites with the longest detection time for controlling ATD abuse. In vitro metabolism studies of ATD were performed using homogenized horse liver. ATD was found to be extensively metabolized, and its metabolites could not be easily characterized by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) due to insufficient sensitivity. Liquid chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry (LC/HRMS) was therefore employed for the identification of in vitro metabolites. The major biotransformations observed were combinations of reduction of the olefin groups and/or the keto group at either C3 or C17 position. In addition, mono-hydroxylation in the D-ring was observed along with reduction of the olefin groups and/or the keto group at C17 position. Fourteen in vitro metabolites, including two epimers of androsta-1,4,6-trien-17-ol-3-one (M1a, M1b), androsta-4,6-diene-3,17-dione (M2), boldione (M3), androsta-4,6-diene-17β-ol-3-one (M4), androsta-4,6-diene-3-ol-17-one (M5), boldenone and epi-boldenone (M6a, M6b), four stereoisomers of hydroxylated androsta-1,4,6-trien-17-ol-3-one (M7a to M7d), and two epimers of androsta-1,4-diene-16α,17-diol (M8a, M8b), were identified. The identities of all metabolites, except M1a, M5, M7a to M7d, were confirmed by matching with authentic reference standards using LC/HRMS. For the in vivo metabolism studies, two thoroughbred geldings were each administered with 800 mg of ATD by stomach tubing. ATD, and twelve out of the fourteen in vitro metabolites, including M1a, M1b, M2, M4, M5, M6, M7a to M7d, M8a and M8b, were detected in post-administration urine. Two additional urinary metabolites, namely stereoisomers of hydroxylated androsta-4,6-dien-17-ol-3-one (M9a, M9b), were tentatively identified by mass spectral interpretation. Elevated level of testosterone was also observed. In post-administration blood samples, only the parent drug, M1b and M2 were identified. This study showed that the detection of ATD administration would be best achieved by either monitoring the metabolites M1b (androsta-1,4,6-trien-17β-ol-3-one) or M4 (both excreted as sulfate conjugates) in urine, which could be detected for up to a maximum of 77 h post-administration. The analyte of choice for plasma is M1b, which could be detected for up to 28 h post administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai Him Kwok
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China.
| | - Gary N W Leung
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Terence S M Wan
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Peter Curl
- Department of Veterinary Regulation & International Liaison, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Peter J Schiff
- Department of Veterinary Regulation & International Liaison, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
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Evaluation of horse urine sample preparation methods for metabolomics using LC coupled to HRMS. Bioanalysis 2014; 6:785-803. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.13.324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Horse urine is the medium of choice for the implementation of metabolomic approaches aimed at improving horse doping control. However, drug analysis in this biofluid is a challenging task due to the presence of large amounts of interfering compounds. Methodology & Results: A comparative study of sample preparation has been conducted to evaluate five sample-preparation methods, namely acetonitrile precipitation, proteinase K hydrolysis, membrane filtration and sample dilution with water by factors of five and 20, for metabolome analysis using liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry. Assessment was performed at both global and targeted levels, by using a few thousand features obtained from peak detection software, and internal standards and 100 annotated or identified metabolites. Conclusion: By considering the number of detected signals, their intensity and their detection repeatability, acetonitrile precipitation was selected as the most efficient sample-preparation method for the analysis of horse urine metabolome in liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry conditions.
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A generic screening methodology for horse doping control by LC–TOF-MS, GC–HRMS and GC–MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2013; 941:69-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Leung GNW, Kwok WH, Wan TSM, Lam KKH, Schiff PJ. Metabolic studies of formestane in horses. Drug Test Anal 2013; 5:412-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Revised: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 11/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gary N. W. Leung
- Racing Laboratory; The Hong Kong Jockey Club; Sha Tin Racecourse; Sha Tin; N.T.; Hong Kong, China
| | - W. H. Kwok
- Racing Laboratory; The Hong Kong Jockey Club; Sha Tin Racecourse; Sha Tin; N.T.; Hong Kong, China
| | - Terence S. M. Wan
- Racing Laboratory; The Hong Kong Jockey Club; Sha Tin Racecourse; Sha Tin; N.T.; Hong Kong, China
| | - Kenneth K. H. Lam
- Veterinary Regulation & International Liaison; The Hong Kong Jockey Club; ShaTin Racecourse; Sha Tin; N.T.; Hong Kong, China
| | - Peter J. Schiff
- Veterinary Regulation & International Liaison; The Hong Kong Jockey Club; ShaTin Racecourse; Sha Tin; N.T.; Hong Kong, China
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Kwok WH, Ho ENM, Leung GNW, Tang FPW, Wan TSM, Wong HNC, Yeung JHK. Metabolic studies of 1-testosterone in horses. Drug Test Anal 2012; 5:81-8. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Revised: 05/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W. H. Kwok
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse; Sha Tin, N.T.; Hong Kong; China
| | - Emmie N. M. Ho
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse; Sha Tin, N.T.; Hong Kong; China
| | - Gary N. W. Leung
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse; Sha Tin, N.T.; Hong Kong; China
| | - Francis P. W. Tang
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse; Sha Tin, N.T.; Hong Kong; China
| | - Terence S. M. Wan
- Racing Laboratory, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse; Sha Tin, N.T.; Hong Kong; China
| | - Henry N. C. Wong
- Department of Chemistry; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Sha Tin, N.T.; Hong Kong; China
| | - John H. K. Yeung
- School of Biomedical Sciences; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Sha Tin, N.T.; Hong Kong; China
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Abstract
Historically, dope-testing methods have been developed to target specific and known threats to the integrity of sport. Traditionally, the source of new analytical targets for which testing was required were derived almost exclusively from the pharmaceutical industry. More recently, the emergence of designer drugs, such as tetrahydrogestrinone that are specifically intended to evade detection, or novel chemicals intended to circumvent laws controlling the sale and distribution of recreational drugs, such as anabolic steroids, stimulants and cannabinoids, have become a significant issue. In this review, we shall consider the emergence of designer drugs and the response of dope-testing laboratories to these new threats, in particular developments in analytical methods, instrumentation and research intended to detect their abuse, and we consider the likely future impact of these approaches.
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Wong JKY, Tang FPW, Wan TSM. In vitro metabolic studies using homogenized horse liver in place of horse liver microsomes. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:393-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2010] [Revised: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 01/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Scarth JP, Teale P, Kuuranne T. Drug metabolism in the horse: a review. Drug Test Anal 2010; 3:19-53. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2010] [Revised: 08/02/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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