1
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Retter TL, Eraßmy L, Schiltz C. Identifying conceptual neural responses to symbolic numerals. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20240589. [PMID: 38919064 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2024.0589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The goal of measuring conceptual processing in numerical cognition is distanced by the possibility that neural responses to symbolic numerals are influenced by physical stimulus confounds. Here, we targeted conceptual responses to parity (even versus odd), using electroencephalogram (EEG) frequency-tagging with a symmetry/asymmetry design. Arabic numerals (2-9) were presented at 7.5 Hz in 50 s sequences; odd and even numbers were alternated to target differential, 'asymmetry' responses to parity at 3.75 Hz (7.5 Hz/2). Parity responses were probed with four different stimulus sets, increasing in intra-numeral stimulus variability, and with two control conditions composed of non-conceptual numeral alternations. Significant asymmetry responses were found over the occipitotemporal cortex to all conditions, even for the arbitrary controls. The large physical-differences control condition elicited the largest response in the stimulus set with the lowest variability (one font). Only in the stimulus set with the highest variability (20 drawn, coloured exemplars/numeral) did the response to parity surpass both control conditions. These findings show that physical differences across small sets of Arabic numerals can strongly influence, and even account for, automatic brain responses. However, carefully designed control conditions and highly variable stimulus sets may be used towards identifying truly conceptual neural responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia L Retter
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, Institute of Cognitive Science & Assessment, University of Luxembourg , Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Lucas Eraßmy
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, Institute of Cognitive Science & Assessment, University of Luxembourg , Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Christine Schiltz
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, Institute of Cognitive Science & Assessment, University of Luxembourg , Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
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2
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Marlair C, Lochy A, Crollen V. Frequency-tagging EEG reveals the effect of attentional focus on abstract magnitude processing. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02480-w. [PMID: 38467991 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02480-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
While humans can readily access the common magnitude of various codes such as digits, number words, or dot sets, it remains unclear whether this process occurs automatically, or only when explicitly attending to magnitude information. We addressed this question by examining the neural distance effect, a robust marker of magnitude processing, with a frequency-tagging approach. Electrophysiological responses were recorded while participants viewed rapid sequences of a base numerosity presented at 6 Hz (e.g., "2") in randomly mixed codes: digits, number words, canonical dot, and finger configurations. A deviant numerosity either close (e.g., "3") or distant (e.g., "8") from the base was inserted every five items. Participants were instructed to focus their attention either on the magnitude number feature (from a previous study), the parity number feature, a nonnumerical color feature or no specific feature. In the four attentional conditions, we found clear discrimination responses of the deviant numerosity despite its code variation. Critically, the distance effect (larger responses when base/deviant are distant than close) was present when participants were explicitly attending to magnitude and parity, but it faded with color and simple viewing instructions. Taken together, these results suggest automatic access to an abstract number representation but highlight the role of selective attention in processing the underlying magnitude information. This study therefore provides insights into how attention can modulate the neural activity supporting abstract magnitude processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy Marlair
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute (IPSY), Université Catholique de Louvain, Place Cardinal Mercier 10, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
| | - Aliette Lochy
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute (IPSY), Université Catholique de Louvain, Place Cardinal Mercier 10, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Institute of Cognitive Science and Assessment, Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Social and Educational Sciences, Université du Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Virginie Crollen
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute (IPSY), Université Catholique de Louvain, Place Cardinal Mercier 10, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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3
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Lin P, Zhou X, Zang S, Zhu Y, Zhang L, Bai Y, Wang H. Early neural markers for individual difference in mathematical achievement determined from rational number processing. Neuropsychologia 2023; 181:108493. [PMID: 36707024 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The neural markers for individual differences in mathematical achievement have been studied extensively using magnetic resonance imaging; however, high temporal resolution electrophysiological evidence for individual differences in mathematical achievement require further elucidation. This study evaluated the event-related potential (ERP) when 48 college students with high or low mathematical achievement (HA vs. LA) matched non-symbolic and symbolic rational numbers. Behavioral results indicated that HA students had better performance in the discretized non-symbolic matching, although the two groups showed similar performances in the continuous matching. ERP data revealed that even before non-symbolic stimulus presentation, HA students had greater Bereitschaftspotential (BP) amplitudes over posterior central electrodes. After the presentation of non-symbolic numbers, HA students had larger N1 amplitudes at 160 ms post-stimulus, over left-lateralized parieto-occipital electrodes. After the presentation of symbolic numbers, HA students displayed more profound P1 amplitudes at 100 ms post-stimulus, over left parietal electrodes. Furthermore, larger BP and N1 amplitudes were associated with the shorter reaction times, and larger P1 amplitudes corresponded to lower error rates. The BP effect could indicate preparation processing, and early left-lateralized N1 and P1 effects could reflect the non-symbolic and symbolic number processing along the dorsal neural pathways. These results suggest that the left-lateralized P1 and N1 components elicited by matching non-symbolic and symbolic rational numbers can be considered as neurocognitive markers for individual differences in mathematical achievement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingting Lin
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China; Research Center for Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Xinlin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, PR China
| | - Shiyi Zang
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China; Research Center for Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Yanmei Zhu
- School for Early-Childhood Education, Nanjing Xiaozhuang University, Nanjing, 211171, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Li Zhang
- School for Early-Childhood Education, Nanjing Xiaozhuang University, Nanjing, 211171, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Yi Bai
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China; Research Center for Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Haixian Wang
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China; Research Center for Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, Jiangsu, PR China.
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4
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Marlair C, Crollen V, Lochy A. A shared numerical magnitude representation evidenced by the distance effect in frequency-tagging EEG. Sci Rep 2022; 12:14559. [PMID: 36028649 PMCID: PMC9418351 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-18811-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans can effortlessly abstract numerical information from various codes and contexts. However, whether the access to the underlying magnitude information relies on common or distinct brain representations remains highly debated. Here, we recorded electrophysiological responses to periodic variation of numerosity (every five items) occurring in rapid streams of numbers presented at 6 Hz in randomly varying codes—Arabic digits, number words, canonical dot patterns and finger configurations. Results demonstrated that numerical information was abstracted and generalized over the different representation codes by revealing clear discrimination responses (at 1.2 Hz) of the deviant numerosity from the base numerosity, recorded over parieto-occipital electrodes. Crucially, and supporting the claim that discrimination responses reflected magnitude processing, the presentation of a deviant numerosity distant from the base (e.g., base “2” and deviant “8”) elicited larger right-hemispheric responses than the presentation of a close deviant numerosity (e.g., base “2” and deviant “3”). This finding nicely represents the neural signature of the distance effect, an interpretation further reinforced by the clear correlation with individuals’ behavioral performance in an independent numerical comparison task. Our results therefore provide for the first time unambiguously a reliable and specific neural marker of a magnitude representation that is shared among several numerical codes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy Marlair
- Institute of Psychology (IPSY) and Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS), Université Catholique de Louvain, Place Cardinal Mercier 10, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
| | - Virginie Crollen
- Institute of Psychology (IPSY) and Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS), Université Catholique de Louvain, Place Cardinal Mercier 10, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Aliette Lochy
- Institute of Psychology (IPSY) and Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS), Université Catholique de Louvain, Place Cardinal Mercier 10, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.,Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Social and Educational Sciences, Institute of Cognitive Science and Assessment, Université du Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
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5
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Numerical estrangement and integration between symbolic and non-symbolic numerical information: Task-dependence and its link to math abilities in adults. Cognition 2022; 224:105067. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Fu W, Dolfi S, Decarli G, Spironelli C, Zorzi M. Electrophysiological Signatures of Numerosity Encoding in a Delayed Match-to-Sample Task. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 15:750582. [PMID: 35058763 PMCID: PMC8764258 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.750582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of elements in a small set of items is appraised in a fast and exact manner, a phenomenon called subitizing. In contrast, humans provide imprecise responses when comparing larger numerosities, with decreasing precision as the number of elements increases. Estimation is thought to rely on a dedicated system for the approximate representation of numerosity. While previous behavioral and neuroimaging studies associate subitizing to a domain-general system related to object tracking and identification, the nature of small numerosity processing is still debated. We investigated the neural processing of numerosity across subitizing and estimation ranges by examining electrophysiological activity during the memory retention period in a delayed numerical match-to-sample task. We also assessed potential differences in the neural signature of numerical magnitude in a fully non-symbolic or cross-format comparison. In line with behavioral performance, we observed modulation of parietal-occipital neural activity as a function of numerosity that differed in two ranges, with distinctive neural signatures of small numerosities showing clear similarities with those observed in visuospatial working memory tasks. We also found differences in neural activity related to numerical information in anticipation of single vs. cross-format comparison, suggesting a top-down modulation of numerical processing. Finally, behavioral results revealed enhanced performance in the mixed-format conditions and a significant correlation between task performance and symbolic mathematical skills. Overall, we provide evidence for distinct mechanisms related to small and large numerosity and differences in numerical encoding based on task demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanlu Fu
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Serena Dolfi
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialisation, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Gisella Decarli
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Chiara Spironelli
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center (PNC), University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Marco Zorzi
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
- IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy
- *Correspondence: Marco Zorzi,
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7
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Finke S, Kemény F, Clayton FJ, Banfi C, Steiner AF, Perchtold-Stefan CM, Papousek I, Göbel SM, Landerl K. Cross-Format Integration of Auditory Number Words and Visual-Arabic Digits: An ERP Study. Front Psychol 2021; 12:765709. [PMID: 34887813 PMCID: PMC8649696 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.765709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Converting visual-Arabic digits to auditory number words and vice versa is seemingly effortless for adults. However, it is still unclear whether this process takes place automatically and whether accessing the underlying magnitude representation is necessary during this process. In two event-related potential (ERP) experiments, adults were presented with identical (e.g., “one” and 1) or non-identical (e.g., “one” and 9) number pairs, either unimodally (two visual-Arabic digits) or cross-format (an auditory number word and a visual-Arabic digit). In Experiment 1 (N=17), active task demands required numerical judgments, whereas this was not the case in Experiment 2 (N=19). We found pronounced early ERP markers of numerical identity unimodally in both experiments. In the cross-format conditions, however, we only observed late neural correlates of identity and only if the task required semantic number processing (Experiment 1). These findings suggest that unimodal pairs of digits are automatically integrated, whereas cross-format integration of numerical information occurs more slowly and involves semantic access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Finke
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Ferenc Kemény
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Institute of Education and Psychology at Szombathely, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Chiara Banfi
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Institute for Medical Informatics, Statistics and Documentation, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Anna F Steiner
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,FH JOANNEUM, University of Applied Sciences, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Ilona Papousek
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Silke M Göbel
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, United Kingdom.,Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Karin Landerl
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria.,Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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8
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Automatic integration of numerical formats examined with frequency-tagged EEG. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21405. [PMID: 34725370 PMCID: PMC8560945 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00738-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
How humans integrate and abstract numerical information across different formats is one of the most debated questions in human cognition. We addressed the neuronal signatures of the numerical integration using an EEG technique tagged at the frequency of visual stimulation. In an oddball design, participants were stimulated with standard sequences of numbers (< 5) depicted in single (digits, dots, number words) or mixed notation (dots-digits, number words-dots, digits-number words), presented at 10 Hz. Periodically, a deviant stimulus (> 5) was inserted at 1.25 Hz. We observed significant oddball amplitudes for all single notations, showing for the first time using this EEG technique, that the magnitude information is spontaneously and unintentionally abstracted, irrespectively of the numerical format. Significant amplitudes were also observed for digits-number words and number words-dots, but not for digits-dots, suggesting an automatic integration across some numerical formats. These results imply that direct and indirect neuro-cognitive links exist across the different numerical formats.
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9
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Wang L, Liang X, Yin Y, Kang J. Bidirectional Mapping Between the Symbolic Number System and the Approximate Number System. Exp Psychol 2021; 68:243-263. [DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Abstract. Previous studies have discussed the symmetry of bidirectional mapping between approximate number system (ANS) and symbolic number system (SNS). However, these studies neglected the essential significance of bidirectional mapping in the development of numerical cognition. That is, with age, the connection strength between the ANS and SNS in ANS-SNS mapping could be higher than that in SNS-ANS mapping. Therefore, this study attempted to explore the symmetry of bidirectional mapping by examining whether the connection between the ANS and SNS is the same. Using two types of dot array materials (extensive and intensive) and sequence priming paradigms, this study found a stable negative priming effect in the ANS-SNS priming task, but no priming effect in the SNS-ANS priming task. In addition, although sensory cues (extensive and intensive) could affect performance in the ANS-SNS mapping task, these cues did not affect performance in the ANS-SNS priming task. In general, this study provides valuable insight into the symmetry of bidirectional mapping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijuan Wang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, PR China
| | - Xiao Liang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, PR China
| | - Yueyang Yin
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, PR China
| | - Jingmei Kang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, PR China
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10
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Pacheco LB, Figueira JS, Pereira MG, Oliveira L, David IA. Controlling Unpleasant Thoughts: Adjustments of Cognitive Control Based on Previous-Trial Load in a Working Memory Task. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 13:469. [PMID: 32038201 PMCID: PMC6993100 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Dynamic cognitive control adjustments are important for integrating thoughts and actions that take place during dynamic changes of environmental demands and support goal-directed behavior. We investigated, in a working memory (WM) paradigm, whether dynamic adjustments in cognitive control based on previous trial load influence the neural response to neutral or unpleasant distracters. We also investigated whether individual self-reported abilities in controlling thoughts influence this effect. Participants performed a WM change detection task with low or high WM-related cognitive demands. An unpleasant or a neutral distractive image was presented at the beginning of each trial, prior to the WM task. We tested for control adjustments that were associated with the load level of the preceding trial task (N-1) on the neural response to the subsequent distractive image. We found an effect of the prior WM task load on a parieto-occipital waveform event-related potential (ERP) that appeared between 200 and 300 ms after the neutral distracter onset. This effect was not observed for the unpleasant distracter. Individual ability for controlling thoughts may influence the effect of cognitive control adjustments on distracter processing during the unpleasant condition. These findings provide evidence that: (1) dynamic cognitive control adjustments are impaired by unpleasant distracters; and (2) the ability to control unpleasant thoughts is linked to individual differences in flexible cognitive control adjustments and shielding of WM representations from unpleasant distracters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiza Bonfim Pacheco
- Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Brazil.,Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Jéssica S Figueira
- Physiology and Pharmacology Department, Biomedical Institute, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Brazil.,Department of Psychology, Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Mirtes G Pereira
- Physiology and Pharmacology Department, Biomedical Institute, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Leticia Oliveira
- Physiology and Pharmacology Department, Biomedical Institute, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Brazil
| | - Isabel A David
- Physiology and Pharmacology Department, Biomedical Institute, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, Brazil
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11
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Gouet C, Gutiérrez Silva CA, Guedes B, Peña M. Cognitive and Neural Effects of a Brief Nonsymbolic Approximate Arithmetic Training in Healthy First Grade Children. Front Integr Neurosci 2018; 12:28. [PMID: 30065636 PMCID: PMC6056658 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2018.00028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies with children and adults have shown that the abilities of the Approximate Number System (ANS), which operates from early infancy and allows estimating the number of elements in a set without symbols, are trainable and transferable to symbolic arithmetic abilities. Here we investigated the brain correlates of these training effects, which are currently unknown. We trained two Groups of first grade children, one in performing nonsymbolic additions with dot arrays (Addition-Group) and another one in performing color comparisons of the same arrays (Color-Group). The training program was computerized, throughout seven sessions and had a pretest-posttest design. To evaluate cognitive gains, we measured math skills before and after the training. To measure the brain changes, we used electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings in the first and the last training sessions. We explored the changes in N1 and P2p, which are two electrophysiological components sensitive to nonsymbolic numeric computations. A passive Control-Group receiving no intervention also had their math skills evaluated. We found that the two training Groups had similarly gain in math skills, suggesting no specific transfer of the nonsymbolic addition training to math skills at the behavioral level. In contrast, at the brain level, we found that only in the Addition-Group the P2p amplitude significantly increased across sessions. Notably, the gain in P2p amplitude positively correlated with the gain in math abilities. Together, our results showed that first graders rapidly gained in math skills by different interventions. However, number-related brain networks seem to be particularly sensitive to nonsymbolic arithmetic training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilo Gouet
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - César A Gutiérrez Silva
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Neuroscience, King's College of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Guedes
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marcela Peña
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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