1
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Konoike F, Taniguchi M, Yamamoto S. Integrated continuous downstream process of monoclonal antibody developed by converting the batch platform process based on the process characterization. Biotechnol Bioeng 2024; 121:2269-2277. [PMID: 37691165 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
A continuous downstream process of monoclonal antibody was developed based on the process characterization. Periodic-counter current chromatography (PCCC) with two protein A columns was used for the capture step. For low pH virus inactivation (VI), a batch reactor was employed, which can work as a surge (buffer) tank. Flow-through chromatography (FTC) with two connected columns of different separation modes (anion-mixed mode and cation exchange) was designed as a polish step. After 24 h PCCC run, the collected pool was processed for VI. After adjusting pH and electric conductivity, the solution was fed to the two connected FTC columns for 24 h. Virus filter was also connected to the exit of the connected-column. PCCC and FTC were run in parallel. Six runs of different feed rates (0.5-10 L/day) and feed concentrations (1-3.2 g/L) were performed with protein A columns of 1-5 mL and FTC columns of 3-10 mL. The largest run (feed rate 10 L/day, feed concentration 2 g/L) was carried out at a GMP facility with 15 mL protein A columns and 100 mL FTC columns. Good recovery and purity values were obtained for all runs. The process was found to be flexible and stable for feed fluctuations. Only three surge or pool tanks were needed in addition to the final product pool tank.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuminori Konoike
- Manufacturing Technology Association of Biologics, Shin-kawa, Chuo-ku, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Taniguchi
- Manufacturing Technology Association of Biologics, Shin-kawa, Chuo-ku, Japan
| | - Shuichi Yamamoto
- Manufacturing Technology Association of Biologics, Shin-kawa, Chuo-ku, Japan
- Biomedical Engineering Center (YUBEC), Graduate School of Science and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Japan
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2
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Dürauer A, Jungbauer A, Scharl T. Sensors and chemometrics in downstream processing. Biotechnol Bioeng 2024; 121:2347-2364. [PMID: 37470278 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
The biopharmaceutical industry is still running in batch mode, mostly because it is highly regulated. In the past, sensors were not readily available and in-process control was mainly executed offline. The most important product parameters are quantity, purity, and potency, in addition to adventitious agents and bioburden. New concepts using disposable single-use technologies and integrated bioprocessing for manufacturing will dominate the future of bioprocessing. To ensure the quality of pharmaceuticals, initiatives such as Process Analytical Technologies, Quality by Design, and Continuous Integrated Manufacturing have been established. The aim is that these initiatives, together with technology development, will pave the way for process automation and autonomous bioprocessing without any human intervention. Then, real-time release would be realized, leading to a highly predictive and robust biomanufacturing system. The steps toward such automated and autonomous bioprocessing are reviewed in the context of monitoring and control. It is possible to integrate real-time monitoring gradually, and it should be considered from a soft sensor perspective. This concept has already been successfully implemented in other industries and requires relatively simple model training and the use of established statistical tools, such as multivariate statistics or neural networks. This review describes a scenario for integrating soft sensors and predictive chemometrics into modern process control. This is exemplified by selective downstream processing steps, such as chromatography and membrane filtration, the most common unit operations for separation of biopharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Dürauer
- Institute of Bioprocessing Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alois Jungbauer
- Institute of Bioprocessing Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Theresa Scharl
- Institute of Statistics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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3
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Neves CPG, Coffman JL, Farid SS. Evaluating end-to-end continuous antibody manufacture with column-free capture alternatives from economic, environmental, and robustness perspectives. Biotechnol Prog 2024; 40:e3427. [PMID: 38289674 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.3427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Process intensification efforts have renewed interest in the potential of end-to-end continuous manufacture with column-free capture alternatives. This article describes a decisional tool that encompasses mass balance and design equations, process economics, stochastic simulation and multi-criteria decision-making and enables the evaluation of different batch, and continuous flowsheets for monoclonal antibody (mAb) manufacture. The traditional batch process was compared with end-to-end continuous bioprocesses with either protein A capture or column-free capture employing aqueous two-phase extraction or precipitation from economic, environmental, and robustness perspectives. The cost of goods analysis predicted that continuous flowsheets could offer substantial cost savings (~20%-40%) over the batch process at low and medium annual commercial demands (100-500 kg); however, at tonnage demands they resulted in either comparable or higher costs. Comparing the continuous options, the continuous flowsheets with protein A or precipitation yielded similar COG/g values, while aqueous two-phase extraction presented higher costs. The analysis of overall process mass intensities accounting for water and consumables suggested that the continuous flowsheet with protein A would result in the lowest environmental burden. When the economic, environmental, and operational criteria were reconciled using multi-criteria decision-making analysis, the continuous protein A-based flowsheet was found to be the most favorable. A target analysis highlighted the need for process improvements in the following parameters to reduce the manufacturing costs of the continuous column-free capture options below that of protein A: the perfusion volumetric productivity, the harvested cell culture fluid percentage in column-free operations, the column-free step yields along with the implementation of buffer concentrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina P G Neves
- The Advanced Centre for Biochemical Engineering, Department of Biochemical Engineering, University College London, London, UK
| | - Jonathan L Coffman
- Bioprocess Technologies and Engineering, Biopharmaceuticals Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
| | - Suzanne S Farid
- The Advanced Centre for Biochemical Engineering, Department of Biochemical Engineering, University College London, London, UK
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4
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Behboudi A, Minervini M, Badinger ZS, Haddad WW, Zydney AL. Addition of sodium malonate alters the morphology and increases the critical flux during tangential flow filtration of precipitated immunoglobulins. Protein Sci 2024; 33:e5010. [PMID: 38723172 PMCID: PMC11081521 DOI: 10.1002/pro.5010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that one can control the packing density, and in turn the filterability, of protein precipitates by changing the pH and buffer composition of the precipitating solution to increase the structure/order within the precipitate. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of sodium malonate, which is known to enhance protein crystallizability, on the morphology of immunoglobulin precipitates formed using a combination of ZnCl2 and polyethylene glycol. The addition of sodium malonate significantly stabilized the precipitate particles as shown by an increase in melting temperature, as determined by differential scanning calorimetry, and an increase in the enthalpy of interaction, as determined by isothermal titration calorimetry. The sodium malonate also increased the selectivity of the precipitation, significantly reducing the coprecipitation of DNA from a clarified cell culture fluid. The resulting precipitate had a greater packing density and improved filterability, enabling continuous tangential flow filtration with minimal membrane fouling relative to precipitates formed under otherwise identical conditions but in the absence of sodium malonate. These results provide important insights into strategies for controlling precipitate morphology to enhance the performance of precipitation-filtration processes for the purification of therapeutic proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Behboudi
- Department of Chemical EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Mirko Minervini
- Department of Chemical EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Zachary S. Badinger
- Department of Chemical EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - William W. Haddad
- Department of Chemical EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Andrew L. Zydney
- Department of Chemical EngineeringThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPennsylvaniaUSA
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5
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Yang J, Ostafe R, Bruening ML. In-Membrane Enrichment and Peptic Digestion to Facilitate Analysis of Monoclonal Antibody Glycosylation. Anal Chem 2024; 96:6347-6355. [PMID: 38607313 PMCID: PMC11283323 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c00030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
The number of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is growing rapidly due to their widespread use for treating various diseases and health conditions. Assessing the glycosylation profile of mAbs during production is essential to ensuring their safety and efficacy. This research aims to rapidly isolate and digest mAbs for liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) identification of glycans and monitoring of glycosylation patterns, potentially during manufacturing. Immobilization of an Fc region-specific ligand, oFc20, in a porous membrane enables the enrichment of mAbs from cell culture supernatant and efficient elution with an acidic solution. Subsequent digestion of the mAb eluate occurred in a pepsin-modified membrane within 5 min. The procedure does not require alkylation and desalting, greatly shortening the sample preparation time. Subsequent LC-MS/MS analysis identified 11 major mAb N-glycan proteoforms and assessed the relative peak areas of the glycosylated peptides. This approach is suitable for the glycosylation profiling of various human IgG mAbs, including biosimilars and different IgG subclasses. The total time required for this workflow is less than 2 h, whereas the conventional enzymatic release and labeling of glycans can take much longer. Thus, the integrated membranes are suitable for facilitating the analysis of mAb glycosylation patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyan Yang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Raluca Ostafe
- Molecular Evolution, Protein Engineering and Production Facility; Purdue Institute for Inflammation, Immunology and Infection Diseases, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States
| | - Merlin L. Bruening
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
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6
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Mohammadzadehmarandi A, Determan A, Krumm C, McIntosh LD, Zydney AL. High-performance countercurrent membrane purification for host cell protein removal from monoclonal antibody products. Biotechnol Bioeng 2023; 120:3585-3591. [PMID: 37593776 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
The transition to continuous biomanufacturing has led to renewed interest in alternative approaches for downstream processing of monoclonal antibody (mAb) products. In this study, we examined the potential of using high-performance countercurrent membrane purification (HPCMP) for the removal of host cell proteins (HCPs) derived from Chinese Hamster Ovary cells in the purification of a mAb. Initial studies used several model proteins to identify appropriate operating conditions for the hollow fiber membrane modules. HPCMP was then used for mAb purification, with mAb yield >95% and more than 100-fold reduction in HCP. Stable operation was maintained for 48 h for feeds that were first prefiltered through the 3MTM Harvest RC chromatographic clarifier to remove DNA and other foulants. In addition, the Process Mass Intensity for HPCMP can be much less than that for alternative HCP separation processes. These results highlight the potential of using HPCMP as part of a fully continuous mAb production process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aylin Mohammadzadehmarandi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Amy Determan
- 3M Separation and Purification Sciences, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Christian Krumm
- 3M Separation and Purification Sciences, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - Andrew L Zydney
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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7
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Recanati G, Pappenreiter M, Gstoettner C, Scheidl P, Vega ED, Sissolak B, Jungbauer A. Integration of a perfusion reactor and continuous precipitation in an entirely membrane-based process for antibody capture. Eng Life Sci 2023; 23:e2300219. [PMID: 37795344 PMCID: PMC10545976 DOI: 10.1002/elsc.202300219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Continuous precipitation coupled with continuous tangential flow filtration is a cost-effective alternative for the capture of recombinant antibodies from crude cell culture supernatant. The removal of surge tanks between unit operations, by the adoption of tubular reactors, maintains a continuous harvest and mass flow of product with the advantage of a narrow residence time distribution (RTD). We developed a continuous process implementing two orthogonal precipitation methods, CaCl2 precipitation for removal of host-cell DNA and polyethylene glycol (PEG) for capturing the recombinant antibody, with no influence on the glycosylation profile. Our lab-scale prototype consisting of two tubular reactors and two stages of tangential flow microfiltration was continuously operated for up to 8 days in a truly continuous fashion and without any product flow interruption, both as a stand-alone capture and as an integrated perfusion-capture. Furthermore, we explored the use of a negatively charged membrane adsorber for flow-through anion exchange as first polishing step. We obtained a product recovery of approximately 80% and constant product quality, with more than two logarithmic reduction values (LRVs) for both host-cell proteins and host-cell DNA by the combination of the precipitation-based capture and the first polishing step.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Recanati
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
| | - Magdalena Pappenreiter
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
- Innovation ManagementBilfinger Life Science GmbHSalzburgAustria
| | - Christoph Gstoettner
- Center for Proteomics and MetabolomicsLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Patrick Scheidl
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
| | - Elena Domínguez Vega
- Center for Proteomics and MetabolomicsLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Bernhard Sissolak
- Center for Proteomics and MetabolomicsLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Alois Jungbauer
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
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8
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Yang J, Ostafe R, Welch CJ, Verhalen B, Budyak IL, Bruening ML. Rapid Quantitation of Various Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies Using Membranes with Fc-Specific Ligands. Anal Chem 2023. [PMID: 37216615 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c00531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) provide effective treatments for many diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and, lately, COVID-19. Monitoring the concentrations of mAbs is important during their production and subsequent processing. This work demonstrates a 5 min quantitation of most human immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies through capture of mAbs in membranes modified with ligands that bind to the fragment crystallizable (Fc) region. This enables binding and quantitation of most IgG mAbs. Layer-by-layer (LBL) adsorption of carboxylic acid-rich polyelectrolytes in glass-fiber membranes in 96-well plates allows functionalization of the membranes with Protein A or a peptide, oxidized Fc20 (oFc20), with high affinity for the Fc region of human IgG. mAb capture occurs in <1 min during the flow of solutions through modified membranes, and subsequent binding of a fluorophore-labeled secondary antibody enables quantitation of the captured mAbs using fluorescence. The intra- and inter-plate coefficients of variations (CV) are <10 and 15%, respectively, satisfying the acceptance criteria for many assays. The limit of detection (LOD) of 15 ng/mL is on the high end of commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) but certainly low enough for monitoring of manufacturing solutions. Importantly, the membrane-based method requires <5 minutes, whereas ELISAs typically take at least 90 min. Membranes functionalized with oFc20 show greater mAb binding and lower LODs than membranes with Protein A. Thus, the membrane-based 96-well-plate assay, which is effective in diluted fermentation broths and in mixtures with cell lysates, is suitable for near-real-time monitoring of the general class of human IgG mAbs during their production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyan Yang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Raluca Ostafe
- Molecular Evolution, Protein Engineering and Production Facility, Purdue Institute for Inflammation, Immunology and Infection Diseases, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Christopher J Welch
- Indiana Consortium for Analytical Science & Engineering (ICASE), 410 W. 10th St., # 1020H, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
| | - Brandy Verhalen
- Corteva Agriscience, 8325 NW 62nd Ave, Johnston, Iowa 50131, United States
| | - Ivan L Budyak
- Biopharmaceutical Research and Development, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
| | - Merlin L Bruening
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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9
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Li Z, Chen J, Martinez-Fonts K, Rauscher M, Rivera S, Welsh J, Kandula S. Cationic polymer precipitation for enhanced impurity removal in downstream processing. Biotechnol Bioeng 2023. [PMID: 37148495 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Precipitation can be used for the removal of impurities early in the downstream purification process of biologics, with the soluble product remaining in the filtrate through microfiltration. The objective of this study was to examine the use of polyallylamine (PAA) precipitation to increase the purity of product via higher host cell protein removal to enhance polysorbate excipient stability to enable a longer shelf life. Experiments were performed using three monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with different properties of isoelectric point and IgG subclass. High throughput workflows were established to quickly screen precipitation conditions as a function of pH, conductivity and PAA concentrations. Process analytical tools (PATs) were used to evaluate the size distribution of particles and inform the optimal precipitation condition. Minimal pressure increase was observed during depth filtration of the precipitates. The precipitation was scaled up to 20L size and the extensive characterization of precipitated samples after protein A chromatography showed >75% reduction of host cell protein (HCP) concentrations (by ELISA), >90% reduction of number of HCP species (by mass spectrometry), and >99.8% reduction of DNA. The stability of polysorbate containing formulation buffers for all three mAbs in the protein A purified intermediates was improved at least 25% after PAA precipitation. Mass spectrometry was used to obtain additional understanding of the interaction between PAA and HCPs with different properties. Minimal impact on product quality and <5% yield loss after precipitation were observed while the residual PAA was <9 ppm. These results expand the toolbox in downstream purification to solve HCP clearance issues for programs with purification challenges, while also providing important insights into the integration of precipitation-depth filtration and the current platform process for the purification of biologics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Li
- Biologics Process Development, Biologics Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Justin Chen
- Biologics Process Development, Biologics Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Kirby Martinez-Fonts
- Biologics Analytical Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Michael Rauscher
- Biologics Process Development, Biologics Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Shannon Rivera
- Analytical Research and Development Mass Spectrometry, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey, USA
| | - John Welsh
- Biologics Process Development, Biologics Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Sunitha Kandula
- Biologics Process Development, Biologics Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey, USA
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10
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Lam SF, Shang X, Ghosh R. Membrane-Based Hybrid Method for Purifying PEGylated Proteins. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:182. [PMID: 36837684 PMCID: PMC9966431 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13020182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
PEGylated proteins are usually purified using chromatographic methods, which are limited in terms of both speed and scalability. In this paper, we describe a microfiltration membrane-based hybrid method for purifying PEGylated proteins. Polyethylene glycol (or PEG) is a lower critical solution temperature polymer which undergoes phase transition in the presence of a lyotropic salt and forms micelle-like structures which are several microns in size. In the proposed hybrid method, the PEGylated proteins are first converted to their micellar form by the addition of a lyotropic salt (1.65 M ammonium sulfate). While the micelles are retained using a microfiltration membrane, soluble impurities such as the unmodified protein are washed out through the membrane. The PEGylated proteins thus retained by the membrane are recovered by solubilizing them by removing the lyotropic salt. Further, by precisely controlling the salt removal, the different PEGylated forms of the protein, i.e., mono-PEGylated and di-PEGylated forms, are fractionated from each other. Hybrid separation using two different types of microfiltration membrane devices, i.e., a stirred cell and a tangential flow filtration device, are examined in this paper. The membrane-based hybrid method for purifying PEGylated proteins is both fast and scalable.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Raja Ghosh
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-905-525-9140 (ext. 27415)
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11
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Minervini M, Zydney AL. Effect of module geometry on the sustainable flux during microfiltration of precipitated IgG. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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12
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Schwaminger SP, Zimmermann I, Berensmeier S. Current research approaches in downstream processing of pharmaceutically relevant proteins. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2022; 77:102768. [PMID: 35930843 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Biopharmaceuticals and their production are on the rise. They are needed to treat and to prevent multiple diseases. Therefore, an urgent need for process intensification in downstream processing (DSP) has been identified to produce biopharmaceuticals more efficiently. The DSP currently accounts for the majority of production costs of pharmaceutically relevant proteins. This short review gathers essential research over the past 3 years that addresses novel solutions to overcome this bottleneck. The overview includes promising studies in the fields of chromatography, aqueous two-phase systems, precipitation, crystallization, magnetic separation, and filtration for the purification of pharmaceutically relevant proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian P Schwaminger
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; Bioseparation Engineering Group, School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany.
| | - Ines Zimmermann
- Bioseparation Engineering Group, School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| | - Sonja Berensmeier
- Bioseparation Engineering Group, School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany.
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13
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Recanati G, Coca-Whiteford R, Scheidl P, Sissolak B, Jungbauer A. Redissolution of recombinant antibodies precipitated by ZnCl2. Process Biochem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2022.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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14
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Pons Royo MDC, Beulay JL, Valery E, Jungbauer A, Satzer P. Mode and dosage time in polyethylene glycol precipitation process influences protein precipitate size and filterability. Process Biochem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2022.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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15
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Gerstweiler L, Billakanti J, Bi J, Middelberg APJ. Control strategy for multi-column continuous periodic counter current chromatography subject to fluctuating inlet stream concentration. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1667:462884. [PMID: 35182911 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.462884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Fluctuations of the inlet feed stream concentration are a challenge in controlling continuous multi-column counter current chromatography systems with standard methods. We propose a new control strategy based on calculated product column breakthrough from UV sensor signals by neglecting an impurity baseline and instead using the impurity to product ratio. This calculation is independent of the inlet feed concentration. In-silico simulation showed that the proposed method can calculate the product column breakthrough perfectly even with fluctuating and highly unstable inlet feed concentration during a loading cycle. Applying the proposed method to control a three column periodic counter current chromatography process with fluctuating inlet feed concentration resulted in constant column loading in each cycle, while using the standard method failed to do so. Unavoidable band broadening caused by diffusion and dispersion has been identified as an inherent limiting factor for accurate calculation of column breakthrough comparing inlet and outlet UV signals. The proposed advanced calculations increase the robustness of periodic counter current chromatography and extend the capability to process unstable inlet streams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Gerstweiler
- School of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Material, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia.
| | - Jagan Billakanti
- Global Life Sciences Solutions Australia Pty Ltd, Level 11, 32 Phillip St, Parramatta, New South Wales 2150, Australia
| | - Jingxiu Bi
- Division of Research and Innovation, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5000, Australia
| | - Anton P J Middelberg
- Division of Research and Innovation, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5000, Australia
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16
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Pons Royo MDC, Beulay JL, Valery E, Jungbauer A, Satzer P. Design of millidevices to expedite apparent solubility measurements. REACT CHEM ENG 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2re00022a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
A fast, automated and accurate millidevice for determination of the apparent solubility of proteins and impurities and different industrially relevant precipitating agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria del Carme Pons Royo
- Department of Innovation, Novasep, 81 Boulevard de la Moselle, 54340 Pompey, France
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1190 Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB), Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jean-Luc Beulay
- Department of Innovation, Novasep, 81 Boulevard de la Moselle, 54340 Pompey, France
| | - Eric Valery
- Department of Innovation, Novasep, 81 Boulevard de la Moselle, 54340 Pompey, France
| | - Alois Jungbauer
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1190 Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB), Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Satzer
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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17
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Iminodiacetic Acid (IDA) Cation-Exchange Nonwoven Membranes for Efficient Capture of Antibodies and Antibody Fragments. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11070530. [PMID: 34357180 PMCID: PMC8305546 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11070530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
There is strong need to reduce the manufacturing costs and increase the downstream purification efficiency of high-value therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). This paper explores the performance of a weak cation-exchange membrane based on the coupling of IDA to poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) nonwoven fabrics. Uniform and conformal layers of poly(glycidyl methacrylate) (GMA) were first grafted to the surface of the nonwovens. Then IDA was coupled to the polyGMA layers under optimized conditions, resulting in membranes with very high permeability and binding capacity. This resulted in IgG dynamic binding capacities at very short residence times (0.1–2.0 min) that are much higher than those achieved by the best cation-exchange resins. Similar results were obtained in the purification of a single-chain (scFv) antibody fragment. As is customary with membrane systems, the dynamic binding capacities did not change significantly over a wide range of residence times. Finally, the excellent separation efficiency and potential reusability of the membrane were confirmed by five consecutive cycles of mAb capture from its cell culture harvest. The present work provides significant evidence that this weak cation-exchange nonwoven fabric platform might be a suitable alternative to packed resin chromatography for low-cost, higher productivity manufacturing of therapeutic mAbs and antibody fragments.
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18
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Affinity precipitation of monoclonal antibodies using ELP-Z in the elution without resolubilization mode. J Biotechnol 2021; 338:1-4. [PMID: 34197822 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2021.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes a simplified affinity precipitation process for the purification of mAbs from complex mixtures using elastin-like polypeptide fused to a single Z domain of protein A (ELP-Z). This approach eliminates several steps in the original process by directly extracting the mAb from the affinity precipitate, without the need for resolubilization. The efficacy of this elution without resolubilization (EWR) approach for obtaining pure mAb is demonstrated and the effects of mixing are examined. This simplification of the affinity precipitation process may facilitate the implementation of ELP-Z based mAb bioprocessing, particularly in a continuous scenario.
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19
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Process Analytical Technology for Precipitation Process Integration into Biologics Manufacturing towards Autonomous Operation—mAb Case Study. Processes (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/pr9030488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The integration of real time release testing into an advanced process control (APC) concept in combination with digital twins accelerates the process towards autonomous operation. In order to implement this, on the one hand, measurement technology is required that is capable of measuring relevant process data online, and on the other hand, a suitable model must be available to calculate new process parameters from this data, which are then used for process control. Therefore, the feasibility of online measurement techniques including Raman-spectroscopy, attenuated total reflection Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), diode array detector (DAD) and fluorescence is demonstrated within the framework of the process analytical technology (PAT) initiative. The best result is achieved by Raman, which reliably detected mAb concentration (R2 of 0.93) and purity (R2 of 0.85) in real time, followed by DAD. Furthermore, the combination of DAD and Raman has been investigated, which provides a promising extension due to the orthogonal measurement methods and higher process robustness. The combination led to a prediction for concentration with a R2 of 0.90 ± 3.9% and for purity of 0.72 ± 4.9%. These data are used to run simulation studies to show the feasibility of process control with a suitable digital twin within the APC concept.
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20
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Gerstweiler L, Bi J, Middelberg AP. Continuous downstream bioprocessing for intensified manufacture of biopharmaceuticals and antibodies. Chem Eng Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2020.116272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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21
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22
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Li Z, Chen TH, Andini E, Coffman JL, Przybycien T, Zydney AL. Enhanced filtration performance using feed-and-bleed configuration for purification of antibody precipitates. Biotechnol Prog 2020; 37:e3082. [PMID: 32940015 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.3082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Precipitation can be used for the initial purification of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), with the soluble host cell proteins removed in the permeate by tangential flow microfiltration. The objective of this study was to examine the use of a feed-and-bleed configuration to increase the effective conversion (ratio of permeate to feed flow rates) in the hollow fiber module to enable more effective washing of the precipitate. Experiments were performed using human serum Immunoglobulin G (IgG) precipitates formed with 10 mM zinc chloride and 7 wt% polyethylene glycol. The critical flux was evaluated as a function of the shear rate and IgG concentration, with the resulting correlation used to predict conditions that can achieve 90% conversion in a single pass with minimal fouling. Experimental data for both the start-up and steady-state performance are in good agreement with model calculations. These results were used to analyze the performance of an enhanced continuous precipitation-microfiltration process using the feed-and-bleed configuration for the initial capture / purification of a mAb product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Li
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Ting-Hsi Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Erha Andini
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jonathan L Coffman
- BioProcess Technologies and Engineering, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
| | - Todd Przybycien
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Andrew L Zydney
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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23
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Dutra G, Komuczki D, Jungbauer A, Satzer P. Continuous capture of recombinant antibodies by ZnCl 2 precipitation without polyethylene glycol. Eng Life Sci 2020; 20:265-274. [PMID: 32647505 PMCID: PMC7336134 DOI: 10.1002/elsc.201900160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The capture of recombinant antibodies from cell culture broth is the first critical step of downstream processing. We were able to develop a precipitation-based method for the capture and purification of monoclonal antibodies based on divalent cations, namely ZnCl2. Traditional precipitation processes have to deal with high dilution factors especially for resolubilization and higher viscosity due to the use of PEG as precipitation or co-precipitation agent. By the use of the crosslinking nature of divalent cations without the use of PEG, we kept viscosity from the supernatant and resolubilization dilution factors very low. This is especially beneficial for the solid-liquid separation for the harvest and wash of the precipitate in continuous mode. For this harvest and wash, we used tangential flow filtration that benefits a lot from low viscosity solutions, which minimizes the membrane fouling. With this precipitation based on ZnCl2, we were able to implement a very lean and efficient process. We demonstrated precipitation studies with three different antibodies, Adalimumab, Trastuzumab, and Denosumab, and a continuous capture case study using tangential flow filtration for precipitate recovery. In this study, we achieved yields of 70%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Dutra
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
| | - Daniel Komuczki
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
| | - Alois Jungbauer
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB)ViennaAustria
| | - Peter Satzer
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB)ViennaAustria
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24
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Gu Q, Li Z, Coffman JL, Przybycien TM, Zydney AL. High throughput solubility and redissolution screening for antibody purification via combined PEG and zinc chloride precipitation. Biotechnol Prog 2020; 36:e3041. [PMID: 32583625 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.3041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
As upstream product titers increase, the downstream chromatographic capture step has become a significant "downstream bottleneck." Precipitation becomes more attractive under these conditions as the supersaturation driving force increases with the ever-increasing titer. In this study, two precipitating reagents with orthogonal mechanisms, polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a volume excluder and zinc chloride (ZnCl2 ) as a cross linker, were examined as precipitants for two monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), one stable and the other aggregation-prone, in purified drug substance and harvested cell culture fluid forms. Manual batch solubility and redissolution experiments were performed as scouting experiments. A high throughput (HTP) liquid handling system was used to investigate the design space as fully as possible while reducing time, labor, and material requirements. Precipitation and redissolution were studied by systematically varying the concentrations of PEG and ZnCl2 to identify combinations that resulted in high yield and good quality for the stable mAb; PEG concentrations in the range 7-7.5 wt/vol% together with 10 mM ZnCl2 gave a yield of 97% and monomer contents of about 93%. While yield for the unstable mAb was high, quality was not acceptable. Performance at selected conditions was further corroborated for the stable mAb using a continuous tubular precipitation reactor at the laboratory scale. The HTP automation system was a powerful tool for locating desired (customized) conditions for antibodies of different physicochemical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Gu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Zhao Li
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jonathan L Coffman
- Process Science, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fremont, California, USA
| | - Todd M Przybycien
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Andrew L Zydney
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
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25
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Hillebrandt N, Vormittag P, Bluthardt N, Dietrich A, Hubbuch J. Integrated Process for Capture and Purification of Virus-Like Particles: Enhancing Process Performance by Cross-Flow Filtration. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:489. [PMID: 32671023 PMCID: PMC7326125 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) are emerging nanoscale protein assemblies applied as prophylactic vaccines and in development as therapeutic vaccines or cargo delivery systems. Downstream processing (DSP) of VLPs comes both with challenges and opportunities, depending on the complexity and size of the structures. Filtration, precipitation/re-dissolution and size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) are potent technologies exploiting the size difference between product and impurities. In this study, we therefore investigated the integration of these technologies within a single unit operation, resulting in three different processes, one of which integrates all three technologies. VLPs, contained in clarified lysate from Escherichia coli, were precipitated by ammonium sulfate, washed, and re-dissolved in a commercial cross-flow filtration (CFF) unit. Processes were analyzed for yield, purity, as well as productivity and were found to be largely superior to a reference centrifugation process. Productivity was increased 2.6-fold by transfer of the wash and re-dissolution process to the CFF unit. Installation of a multimodal SEC column in the permeate line increased purity to 96% while maintaining a high productivity and high yield of 86%. In addition to these advantages, CFF-based capture and purification allows for scalable and disposable DSP. In summary, the developed set-up resulted in high yields and purities, bearing the potential to be applied as an integrated process step for capture and purification of in vivo-assembled VLPs and other protein nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Jürgen Hubbuch
- Institute of Engineering in Life Sciences, Section IV: Biomolecular Separation Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany
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26
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Sencar J, Hammerschmidt N, Jungbauer A. Modeling the Residence Time Distribution of Integrated Continuous Bioprocesses. Biotechnol J 2020; 15:e2000008. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.202000008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jure Sencar
- Austria Centre for Industrial Biotechnology Muthgasse 11 Vienna A‐1190 Austria
| | | | - Alois Jungbauer
- Austria Centre for Industrial Biotechnology Muthgasse 11 Vienna A‐1190 Austria
- Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Muthgasse 18 Vienna A‐1190 Austria
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27
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Accelerating Biologics Manufacturing by Modeling: Process Integration of Precipitation in mAb Downstream Processing. Processes (Basel) 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/pr8010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The demand on biologics has been constantly rising over the past decades and has become crucial in modern medicine. Promising approaches to cope with widespread diseases like cancer and diabetes are gene therapy, plasmid DNA, virus-like particles, and exosomes. Due to progress that has been made in upstream processing (USP), difficulties arise in downstream processing and demand for innovative solutions. This work focuses on the integration of precipitation using a quality by design (QbD) approach for process development. Selective precipitation is achieved with PEG 4000 resulting in an HCP depletion of ≥80% respectively to IgG. Dissolution was executed with a sodium phosphate buffer (pH = 5/50 mM) reaching an IgG recovery of ≥95%. However, the central challenge in process development is still an optimal process design, which is transferable for a broad molecular variety of new products. This is where rigorous modeling becomes vital in order to generate digital twins to support early-stage process development and reduce the experimental overhead. Therefore, a model development and validation concept for construction of a process model for precipitation is also presented.
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28
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Tripathi NK, Shrivastava A. Recent Developments in Bioprocessing of Recombinant Proteins: Expression Hosts and Process Development. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2019; 7:420. [PMID: 31921823 PMCID: PMC6932962 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases, along with cancers, are among the main causes of death among humans worldwide. The production of therapeutic proteins for treating diseases at large scale for millions of individuals is one of the essential needs of mankind. Recent progress in the area of recombinant DNA technologies has paved the way to producing recombinant proteins that can be used as therapeutics, vaccines, and diagnostic reagents. Recombinant proteins for these applications are mainly produced using prokaryotic and eukaryotic expression host systems such as mammalian cells, bacteria, yeast, insect cells, and transgenic plants at laboratory scale as well as in large-scale settings. The development of efficient bioprocessing strategies is crucial for industrial production of recombinant proteins of therapeutic and prophylactic importance. Recently, advances have been made in the various areas of bioprocessing and are being utilized to develop effective processes for producing recombinant proteins. These include the use of high-throughput devices for effective bioprocess optimization and of disposable systems, continuous upstream processing, continuous chromatography, integrated continuous bioprocessing, Quality by Design, and process analytical technologies to achieve quality product with higher yield. This review summarizes recent developments in the bioprocessing of recombinant proteins, including in various expression systems, bioprocess development, and the upstream and downstream processing of recombinant proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagesh K. Tripathi
- Bioprocess Scale Up Facility, Defence Research and Development Establishment, Gwalior, India
| | - Ambuj Shrivastava
- Division of Virology, Defence Research and Development Establishment, Gwalior, India
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