Larvicidal potential of cell wall degrading enzymes from Trichoderma asperellum against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Are1-mediated nitrogen metabolism is associated with iron regulation in the mycoparasite Trichoderma atroviride

Trichoderma atroviride is a mycoparasitic fungus with antagonistic activity against fungal pathogens and is used as a pathogen control agent alternative to synthetic fungicides. Sensing nutrient availability in the environment and adjusting metabolism for optimal growth, development and reproduction is essential for adaptability and is relevant to its mycoparasitic activity. During mycoparasitism, secondary metabolites are produced to weaken the fungal prey and support the attack. Are1-like proteins act as major GATA-type transcription factors in the activation of genes subject to nitrogen catabolite repression. Since the quality and quantity of nitrogen has been proven particularly relevant in remodeling the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in fungi, we decided to functionally characterize Are1, the ortholog of Aspergillus nidulans AreA, in T. atroviride. We show that the growth of the T. atroviride ∆are1 mutant is impaired in comparison to the wild type on several nitrogen sources. Deletion of are1 enhanced sensitivity to oxidative and cell-wall stressors and altered the mycoparasitic activity. We were able to identify for the first time a link between Are1 and iron homeostasis via a regulatory mechanism that does not appear to be strictly linked to the nitrogen source, but rather to an independent role of the transcription factor.

Production and characterization of Trichoderma asperellum chitinases and their use in synergy with Bacillus thuringiensis for lepidopteran control

BACKGROUND

Despite their known negative effects on ecosystems and human health, synthetic pesticides are still largely used to control crop insect pests. Currently, the biopesticide market for insect biocontrol mainly relies on the entomopathogenic bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). New biocontrol tools for crop protection might derive from fungi, in particular from Trichoderma spp., which are known producers of chitinases and other bioactive compounds able to negatively affect insect survival.

RESULTS

In this study, we first developed an environmentally sustainable production process for obtaining chitinases from Trichoderma asperellum ICC012. Then, we investigated the biological effects of this chitinase preparation - alone or in combination with a Bt-based product - when orally administered to two lepidopteran species. Our results demonstrate that T. asperellum efficiently produces a multi-enzymatic cocktail able to alter the chitin microfibril network of the insect peritrophic matrix, resulting in delayed development and larval death. The co-administration of T. asperellum chitinases and sublethal concentrations of Bt toxins increased larval mortality. This synergistic effect was likely due to the higher amount of Bt toxins that passed the damaged peritrophic matrix and reached the target receptors on the midgut cells of chitinase-treated insects.

CONCLUSION

Our findings may contribute to the development of an integrated pest management technology based on fungal chitinases that increase the efficacy of Bt-based products, mitigating the risk of Bt-resistance development. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Trichoderma: a multipurpose, plant-beneficial microorganism for eco-sustainable agriculture

Trichoderma is a cosmopolitan and opportunistic ascomycete fungal genus including species that are of interest to agriculture as direct biological control agents of phytopathogens. Trichoderma utilizes direct antagonism and competition, particularly in the rhizosphere, where it modulates the composition of and interactions with other microorganisms. In its colonization of plants, on the roots or as an endophyte, Trichoderma has evolved the capacity to communicate with the plant and produce numerous multifaceted benefits to its host. The intricacy of this plant-microorganism association has stimulated a marked interest in research on Trichoderma, ranging from its capacity as a plant growth promoter to its ability to prime local and systemic defence responses against biotic and abiotic stresses and to activate transcriptional memory affecting plant responses to future stresses. This Review discusses the ecophysiology and diversity of Trichoderma and the complexity of its relationships in the agroecosystem, highlighting its potential as a direct and indirect biological control agent, biostimulant and biofertilizer, which are useful multipurpose properties for agricultural applications. We also highlight how the present legislative framework might accommodate the demonstrated evidence of Trichoderma proficiency as a plant-beneficial microorganism contributing towards eco-sustainable agriculture.

Cladophialophora bantiana metabolites are efficient in the larvicidal and ovicidal control of Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus and have low toxicity in zebrafish embryo

Mosquitoes' current insecticide resistance status in available public health insecticides is a serious threat to mosquito control initiatives. Microbe-based control agents provide an alternative to conventional pesticides and insecticides, as they can be more targeted than synthetic insecticides. The present study was focused on identifying and investigating the mosquitocidal potential of Cladophialophora bantiana, an endophytic fungus isolated from Opuntia ficus-indica. The Cladophialophora species was identified through phylogenetic analysis of the rDNA sequence. The isolated fungus was first evaluated for its potential to produce metabolites against Aedes aegpti and Culex quinquefasciatus larvae in the 1-4th instar. The secondary metabolites of mycelium extract were assessed at various test doses (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 μg/mL) in independent bioassays for each instar of selected mosquito larvae. After 48 h of exposure, A. aegypti expressed LC₅₀ values of 13.069, 18.085, 9.554, and 11.717 μg/mL and LC₉₀ = 25.702, 30.860, 17.275, and 19.601 μg/mL; followed by C. quinquefasciatus LC₅₀ = 14.467, 11.766, 5.934, and 7.589 μg/mL, and LC₉₀ = 29.529, 20.767, 11.192, and 13.296 μg/mL. The mean % of ovicidal bioassay was recorded 120 h after exposure. The hatchability (%) was proportional to mycelia metabolite concentration. The enzymatic level of acetylcholinesterase in fungal mycelial metabolite treated 4th instar larvae indicated a dose-dependent pattern. The GC-MS profile of C. bantiana extracts identified five of the most abundant compounds, namely cyclobutane, trans-3-undecene-1,5-diyne, 1-bromo-2-chloro, propane, 1,2,3-trichloro-2-methyl-, 5,5,10,10-tetrachlorotricyclo, and phenol, which had the killing effect in mosquitoes. Furthermore, the C. bantiana fungus ethyl acetate extracts had a strong larvicidal action on A. aegypti and C. quinquefasciatus. Finally, the toxicity test on zebrafish embryos revealed the induction of malformations only at concentrations above 1 mg/mL. Therefore, our study pioneered evidence that C. bantiana fungal metabolites effectively control A. aegypti and C. qunquefasciastus and show less lethality in zebrafish embryos at concentrations up to 500 μg/mL.

Antifungal effects of volatile organic compounds produced by Trichoderma koningiopsis T2 against Verticillium dahliae

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by microorganisms are considered promising environmental-safety fumigants for controlling soil-borne diseases. Verticillium dahliae, a notorious fungal pathogen, causes economically important wilt diseases in agriculture and forestry industries. Here, we determined the antifungal activity of VOCs produced by Trichoderma koningiopsis T2. The VOCs from T. koningiopsis T2 were trapped by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and tentatively identified through gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The microsclerotia formation, cell wall-degrading enzymes and melanin synthesis of V. dahliae exposed to the VOC mixtures and selected single standards were examined. The results showed that the VOCs produced by strain T2 significantly inhibited the growth of V. dahliae mycelium and reduced the severity of Verticillium wilt in tobacco and cotton. Six individual compounds were identified in the volatilome of T. koningiopsis T2, and the dominant compounds were 3-octanone, 3-methyl-1-butanol, butanoic acid ethyl ester and 2-hexyl-furan. The VOCs of strain T2 exert a significant inhibitory effect on microsclerotia formation and decreased the activities of pectin lyase and endo-β-1,4-glucanase in V. dahliae. VOCs also downregulated the VdT3HR, VdT4HR, and VdSCD genes related to melanin synthesis by 29. 41-, 10. 49-, and 3.11-fold, respectively. Therefore, T. koningiopsis T2 has potential as a promising biofumigant for the biocontrol of Verticillium wilt disease.