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Lou Y, Zou X, Pan Z, Huang Z, Zheng S, Zheng X, Yang X, Bao M, Zhang Y, Gu J, Zhang Y. The mechanism of action of Botrychium (Thunb.) Sw. for prevention of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis based on 1H-NMR-based metabolomics. J Pharm Pharmacol 2024:rgae058. [PMID: 38776436 DOI: 10.1093/jpp/rgae058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to reveal the anti-fibrotic effects of Botrychium ternatum (Thunb.) Sw. (BT) against idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and to preliminarily analyze its potential mechanism on bleomycin-induced IPF rats. METHODS The inhibition of fibrosis progression in vivo was assessed by histopathology combined with biochemical indicators. In addition, the metabolic regulatory mechanism was investigated using 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabolomics combined with multivariate statistical analysis. KEY FINDINGS Firstly, biochemical analysis revealed that BT notably suppressed the expression of hydroxyproline and transforming growth factor-β1 in the pulmonary tissue. Secondly, Masson's trichrome staining and hematoxylin and eosin showed that BT substantially improved the structure of the damaged lung and significantly inhibited the proliferation of collagen fibers and the deposition of extracellular matrix. Finally, serum metabolomic analysis suggested that BT may exert anti-fibrotic effects by synergistically regulating tyrosine metabolism; phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis; and synthesis and degradation of ketone bodies. CONCLUSIONS Our study not only clarifies the potential anti-fibrotic mechanism of BT against IPF at the metabolic level but also provides a theoretical basis for developing BT as an effective anti-fibrotic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutao Lou
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Cancer Center, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
- College of Pharmacy, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
| | - Xiaozhou Zou
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Cancer Center, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
| | - Zongfu Pan
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Cancer Center, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
| | - Zhongjie Huang
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Cancer Center, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
| | - Shuilian Zheng
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Cancer Center, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
| | - Xiaowei Zheng
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Cancer Center, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
| | - Xiuli Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Cancer Center, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
| | - Meihua Bao
- Academician Workstation, School of Stomatology, Changsha Medical University, Changsha, Hunan 410219, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhejiang Provincial People' s Hospital Bijie Hospital, Bijie, Guizhou 551799, China
| | - Jinping Gu
- College of Pharmacy, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
| | - Yiwen Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Clinical Pharmacy, Cancer Center, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
- Key Laboratory of Endocrine Gland Diseases of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital (Affiliated People's Hospital), Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310014, China
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Du H, Xu T, Yi H, Xu X, Zhao C, Ge Y, Zhang C, Fan G. Effect of Gut Microbiota on the Metabolism of Chemical Constituents of Berberis kansuensis Extract Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS Technique. PLANTA MEDICA 2022; 88:933-949. [PMID: 34521131 DOI: 10.1055/a-1617-9489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The dried stem bark of Berberis kansuensis is a commonly used Tibetan herbal medicine for the treatment of diabetes. Its main chemical components are alkaloids, such as berberine, magnoflorine and jatrorrhizine. However, the role of gut microbiota in the in vivo metabolism of these chemical components has not been fully elucidated. In this study, an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography method coupled with Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS) technology was applied to detect and identify prototype components and metabolites in rat intestinal contents and serum samples after oral administration of a B. kansuensis extract. A total of 16 prototype components and 40 metabolites were identified. The primary metabolic pathways of the chemical components from B. kansuensis extract were demethylation, desaturation, deglycosylation, reduction, hydroxylation, and other conjugation reactions including sulfation, glucuronidation, glycosidation, and methylation. By comparing the differences of metabolites between diabetic and pseudo-germ-free diabetic rats, we found that the metabolic transformation of some chemical components in B. kansuensis extract such as bufotenin, ferulic acid 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, magnoflorine, and 8-oxyberberine, was affected by the gut microbiota. The results revealed that the gut microbiota can affect the metabolic transformation of chemical constituents in B. kansuensis extract. These findings can enhance our understanding of the active ingredients of B. kansuensis extract and the key role of the gut microbiota on them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Du
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Tong Xu
- School of Ethnic Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Huan Yi
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Xinmei Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Chengcheng Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Yiman Ge
- Department of Inspection, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Chuantao Zhang
- Department of Respiration, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Gang Fan
- School of Ethnic Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, P. R. China
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Su Y, Peng Y, Ren J, Wu S, Lei S, Peng F, Sun Z, He X, Li J, Li S. Quantitative Analysis of Berberidis Cortex via Quantitative Analysis of Multicomponents by Single Marker (QAMS) Combined with Fingerprint and Chemometrics Methods. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2022; 2022:8042631. [PMID: 36059925 PMCID: PMC9436626 DOI: 10.1155/2022/8042631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Berberidis Cortex is rich in alkaloids, and many of them have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic activities. However, few research studies have focused on the quantitative analysis of multiple components from Berberidis Cortex. In this study, a new quality evaluation strategy for Berberidis Cortex was developed and validated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which involved single marker, fingerprint, and stoichiometric methods. Using berberine hydrochloride as an internal reference, the relative correction factors of palmatine hydrochloride, magnoline, and jatrorrhizine hydrochloride were 2.4537, 0.9783, and 1.0035, respectively, and their durabilities were also well performed. In addition, both methods mentioned above were used to compare the mass fractions of four isoquinoline alkaloids in ten batches of Berberidis Cortex from different origins. These results indicated that the approach applied in this study was accurate and feasible. The fingerprints of these ten batches of Berberidis Cortex were established, and eleven components were identified with the similarity greater than 0.993. Both cluster and principal component analysis were carried out based on the peak area of these components, the results demonstrated that these ten batches of Berberidis Cortex were divided into two groups and the distribution of the medicinal material was basically consistent. Therefore, quantitative analysis of multicomponents by single marker (QAMS) can be widely used in the quality control of Berberidis Cortex as theoretical basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Su
- Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China
- Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China
| | - Yao Peng
- Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China
- Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China
| | - Jie Ren
- Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China
- Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China
| | - Shangjie Wu
- The Second XiangYa Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Si Lei
- The Second XiangYa Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Fei Peng
- The Second XiangYa Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Zhina Sun
- Qinghai Red Cross Hospital, Xining 810099, China
| | - Xiuqing He
- Qinghai Red Cross Hospital, Xining 810099, China
| | - Juan Li
- Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China
- Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China
| | - Shunxiang Li
- Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China
- Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China
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Huang Y, Lu J, Zhao Q, Chen J, Dong W, Lin M, Zheng H. Potential Therapeutic Mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine on Diabetes in Rodents: A Review from an NMR-Based Metabolomics Perspective. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27165109. [PMID: 36014349 PMCID: PMC9414875 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27165109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been used to treat diabetes for a long time, but its application has not been widely accepted due to unstandardized product quality and complex pharmacological mechanisms. The modernization of TCM is crucial for its further development, and in recent years the metabolomics technique has largely driven its modernization. This review focuses on the application of NMR-based metabolomics in diabetic therapy using TCM. We identified a series of metabolic pathways that altered significantly after TCM treatment, providing a better understanding of the metabolic mechanisms of TCM for diabetes care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinli Huang
- Department of Endocrinology, Pingyang Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325400, China
| | - Jiahui Lu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Qihui Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Junli Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Wei Dong
- Department of Endocrinology, Pingyang Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325400, China
| | - Minjie Lin
- Department of Endocrinology, Pingyang Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325400, China
| | - Hong Zheng
- Department of Endocrinology, Pingyang Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325400, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
- Correspondence:
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Tian R, Liu X, Jing L, Yang L, Xie N, Hou Y, Tao H, Tao Y, Wu J, Meng X. Huang-Lian-Jie-Du decoction attenuates cognitive dysfunction of rats with type 2 diabetes by regulating autophagy and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 292:115196. [PMID: 35337922 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2022.115196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Huang-Lian-Jie-Du decoction (HLJDD) is a traditional Chinese formula that is efficacious in treating diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer's disease, and diabetic encephalopathy; the underlying mechanisms of HLJDD in diabetes-associated cognitive dysfunction remain unclear. AIM OF THE STUDY This study investigated the neuroprotective effects of HLJDD on cognitive function, and the possible underlying mechanisms in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in a rat model of cognitive impairment. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twelve active ingredients in HLJDD were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. An animal model of cognitive dysfunction in T2DM was induced via a high-sugar and high-fat diet combined with a low dose of streptozotocin. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into six groups: control, T2DM, metformin (0.34 g/kg/day), and HLJDD groups (3, 1.5, and 0.75 g/kg/day). All treatments were intragastrically administrated for nine continuous weeks after the development of T2DM. Body weight, food and water intake, fasting blood glucose, insulin sensitivity, and blood lipid levels were measured. Spatial learning and memory of the rats were assessed using the Morris water maze test. Hematoxylin and eosin and Nissl staining were performed to evaluate neuronal morphology and vitality. Glutathione, malondialdehyde, and superoxide dismutase levels were measured to determine the level of oxidative stress in the hippocampus. Transmission electron microscopy was performed to observe the synaptic morphology and structure of hippocampal neurons. IL-1β levels in the hippocampus and cerebrospinal fluid were determined. The protein expression of NLRP3, cleaved caspase-1, mature IL-1β, ATG7, P62, LC3, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was determined using western blotting and immunofluorescence analysis. RESULTS HLJDD attenuated cognitive dysfunction in rats with T2DM as shown by the decreased escape latency, increased times crossing the platform and time spent in the target quadrant in the Morris water maze test (P < 0.05), improvement in hippocampal histopathological changes, and an elevated level of cell vitality. HLJDD treatment also reduced blood glucose and lipid levels, ameliorated oxidative stress, and downregulated IL-1β expression in the hippocampus and cerebrospinal fluid (P < 0.05). Moreover, HLJDD enhanced BDNF, ATG7, and LC3 protein expression and significantly inhibited the expression of P62, NLRP3, cleaved caspase-1, and mature IL-1β in the hippocampal CA1 region (P < 0.05). Immunofluorescence results further confirmed that the fluorescence intensity of NLRP3 and P62 in the hippocampus decreased after HLJDD intervention (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS HLJDD ameliorated cognitive dysfunction in T2DM rats. The neuroprotective effect is exerted via the modulation of glucose and lipid metabolism, upregulation of autophagy, and inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruimin Tian
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China; Department of Pharmacology, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, 637000, China
| | - Xianfeng Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Lijia Jing
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Lu Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Na Xie
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Ya Hou
- Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Honglin Tao
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Yiwen Tao
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Jiasi Wu
- Acupuncture and Tuina School, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China.
| | - Xianli Meng
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China; Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China.
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Zhao J, Wang M, Saroja SG, Khan IA. NMR technique and methodology in botanical health product analysis and quality control. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2022; 207:114376. [PMID: 34656935 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Botanicals have played an important role in maintaining human health and well-being throughout history. During the past few decades in particular, the use of botanical health products has gained more popularity. Whereas, quality, safety and efficacy concerns have continuously been critical issues due to the intrinsic chemical complexity of botanicals. Chemical analytical technologies play an imperative role in addressing these issues. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has proven to be a powerful and useful tool for the investigation of botanical health products. In this review, NMR techniques and methodologies that have been successfully applied to the research and development of botanical health products in all stages, from plants to products, are discussed and summarized. Furthermore, applications of NMR together with other analytical techniques in a variety of domains of botanical health products investigation, such as plant species differentiation, adulteration detection, and bio-activity evaluation, are discussed and illustrated with typical examples. This article provides an overview of the potential uses of NMR techniques and methodologies in an attempt to further promote their recognition and utilization in the field of botanical health products analysis and quality control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Zhao
- National Center for Natural Products Research (NCNPR), School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA.
| | - Mei Wang
- Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Seethapathy G Saroja
- National Center for Natural Products Research (NCNPR), School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Ikhlas A Khan
- National Center for Natural Products Research (NCNPR), School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA.
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Yan LS, Cheng BCY, Zhang SF, Luo G, Zhang C, Wang QG, Fu XQ, Wang YW, Zhang Y. Tibetan Medicine for Diabetes Mellitus: Overview of Pharmacological Perspectives. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:748500. [PMID: 34744728 PMCID: PMC8566911 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.748500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications pose a major public health threat which is approaching epidemic proportions globally. Current drug options may not provide good efficacy and even cause serious adverse effects. Seeking safe and effective agents for DM treatment has been an area of intensive interest. As a healing system originating in Tibet, Traditional Tibetan Medicine (TTM) has been widely used by Tibetan people for the prevention and treatment of DM and its complications for hundreds of years. Tibetan Materia Medica (TMM) including the flower of Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall.) Meisn., Phyllanthi Fructus, Chebulae Fructus, Huidouba, and Berberidis Cortex are most frequently used and studied. These TMMs possess hypoglycemic, anti-insulin resistant, anti-glycation, lipid lowering, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative effects. The underlying mechanisms of these actions may be related to their α-glucosidase inhibitory, insulin signaling promoting, PPARs-activating, gut microbiota modulation, islet β cell-preserving, and TNF-α signaling suppressive properties. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the mode and mechanisms of action of various active constituents, extracts, preparations, and formulas from TMM. The dynamic beneficial effects of the products prepared from TMM for the management of DM and its complications are summarized. These TMMs are valuable materia medica which have the potential to be developed as safe and effective anti-DM agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Shan Yan
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Brian Chi-Yan Cheng
- College of Professional and Continuing Education, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shuo-Feng Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Gan Luo
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Qing-Gao Wang
- First Affiliated Hospital, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Guangxi, China
| | - Xiu-Qiong Fu
- Centre for Cancer and Inflammation Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yi-Wei Wang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
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