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Li Z, Chen A, Wan H, Gao X, Li C, Xiong L, Liang H. Immunohistochemical Localization of MD2, a Co-Receptor of TLR4, in the Adult Mouse Brain. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:400-417. [PMID: 36657737 PMCID: PMC9897217 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) is a co-receptor of a classical proinflammatory protein TLR4 whose activation leads to neuroinflammation. It is widely accepted that TLR4 is expressed on the cell surface of microglia and astrocytes, and MD2 is expected to be expressed by these cells as well. However, our previous study showed that neurons from certain nuclei also expressed MD2. Whether MD2 is expressed by other brain nuclei is still unknown. It is the aim of the present study to map the distribution of MD2-positive cells in the adult mouse brain. Immunohistochemical staining against MD2 was completed to localize MD2-positive cells in the mouse brain by comparing the location of positive cells with the mouse brain atlas. MD2-positive cells were found in the majority of mouse brain nuclei with clusters of cells in the olfactory bulb, cortices, the red nucleus, and cranial nuclei. Subcortical nuclei had heterogeneous staining of MD2 with more prominent cells in the basolateral and the central amygdaloid nuclei. The ventral pallidum and the diagonal bands had positive cells with similar density and shape. Prominent cells were present in thalamic nuclei which were nearly homogeneous and in reticular formation of the brainstem where cells were dispersed with similar density. The hypothalamus had fewer outstanding cells compared with the thalamus. The red nucleus, the substantia nigra, and the ventral tegmental area in the pretectum had outstanding cells. Motor cranial nuclei also had outstanding MD2-positive cells, whereas raphe, sensory cranial, and deep cerebellar nuclei had MD2-positive cells with moderate density. The presence of MD2 in these nuclei may suggest the involvement of MD2 in their corresponding physiological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Li
- Clinical
Research Center for Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Translational
Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Department
of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People’s
Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Aiwen Chen
- Clinical
Research Center for Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Translational
Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Department
of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People’s
Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Hanxi Wan
- Clinical
Research Center for Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Translational
Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Department
of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People’s
Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Xiaofei Gao
- Clinical
Research Center for Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Translational
Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Department
of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People’s
Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Chunguang Li
- NICM
Health Research Institute, Western Sydney
University, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
| | - Lize Xiong
- Clinical
Research Center for Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Translational
Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Department
of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People’s
Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Huazheng Liang
- Clinical
Research Center for Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Translational
Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai
Fourth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Department
of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Shanghai Fourth People’s
Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Shanghai 200434, China
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Computational-Driven Epitope Verification and Affinity Maturation of TLR4-Targeting Antibodies. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115989. [PMID: 34206009 PMCID: PMC8198660 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling plays a critical role in the induction and progression of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematous, experimental autoimmune encephalitis, type 1 diabetes mellitus and neurodegenerative diseases. Deciphering antigen recognition by antibodies provides insights and defines the mechanism of action into the progression of immune responses. Multiple strategies, including phage display and hybridoma technologies, have been used to enhance the affinity of antibodies for their respective epitopes. Here, we investigate the TLR4 antibody-binding epitope by computational-driven approach. We demonstrate that three important residues, i.e., Y328, N329, and K349 of TLR4 antibody binding epitope identified upon in silico mutagenesis, affect not only the interaction and binding affinity of antibody but also influence the structural integrity of TLR4. Furthermore, we predict a novel epitope at the TLR4-MD2 interface which can be targeted and explored for therapeutic antibodies and small molecules. This technique provides an in-depth insight into antibody-antigen interactions at the resolution and will be beneficial for the development of new monoclonal antibodies. Computational techniques, if coupled with experimental methods, will shorten the duration of rational design and development of antibody therapeutics.
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3
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Wang X, Ni D, Liu Y, Lu S. Rational Design of Peptide-Based Inhibitors Disrupting Protein-Protein Interactions. Front Chem 2021; 9:682675. [PMID: 34017824 PMCID: PMC8128998 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.682675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are well-established as a class of promising drug targets for their implications in a wide range of biological processes. However, drug development toward PPIs is inevitably hampered by their flat and wide interfaces, which generally lack suitable pockets for ligand binding, rendering most PPI systems "undruggable." Here, we summarized drug design strategies for developing peptide-based PPI inhibitors. Importantly, several quintessential examples toward well-established PPI targets such as Bcl-2 family members, p53-MDM2, as well as APC-Asef are presented to illustrate the detailed schemes for peptide-based PPI inhibitor development and optimizations. This review supplies a comprehensive overview of recent progresses in drug discovery targeting PPIs through peptides or peptidomimetics, and will shed light on future therapeutic agent development toward the historically "intractable" PPI systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Jiao-Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Duan Ni
- The Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Yaqin Liu
- Medicinal Bioinformatics Center, Shanghai Jiao-Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shaoyong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Jiao-Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Medicinal Bioinformatics Center, Shanghai Jiao-Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Gao M, Cheng K, Yin H. Targeting protein-protein interfaces using macrocyclic peptides. Biopolymers 2016; 104:310-6. [PMID: 25664609 DOI: 10.1002/bip.22625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Revised: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are critical in numerous biological processes including signaling transduction, function regulations, and disease development. To regulate PPIs has been thought to be challenging due to their highly dynamic and expansive interfacial areas. Nonetheless, successful examples have been reported of targeting PPIs using small molecules, peptides, and proteins. Peptides, especially macrocyclic peptides have proven to be a particularly useful tool to inhibit PPIs for their exquisite potency, stability and selectivity. Herein we review the recent developments of this area of research, focusing on the macrocyclic peptides isolated from natural products, identified from library screening, and rationally designed based on structures, as PPI regulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Gao
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Basic Molecular Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China , 100082
| | - Kui Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Basic Molecular Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China , 100082
| | - Hang Yin
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Basic Molecular Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China , 100082.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309-0596
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Li J, Csakai A, Jin J, Zhang F, Yin H. Therapeutic Developments Targeting Toll-like Receptor-4-Mediated Neuroinflammation. ChemMedChem 2016; 11:154-65. [PMID: 26136385 PMCID: PMC4983275 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201500188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been shown to play an important role in the immune system, which warrants study of their remarkable potential as pharmacological targets. Activation of TLRs requires participation from specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and accessory proteins such as myeloid differentiation protein 2 (MD2), lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP), and cluster differentiation antigen 14 (CD14). Assembly of the TLR4-MD2-LPS complex is essential in TLR4 activation. Recent studies have revealed that TLR4 activation is a significant trigger of signal transmission pathways in the nervous system, which could result in chronic pain as well as opioid tolerance and dependence. Researchers of the molecular structure of TLRs and their accessory proteins have opened a door to syntheses of TLRs agonists and antagonists, such as eritoran. Small-molecule modulators of TLR4, such as MD2-I and tricyclic antidepressants, offer more promising prospects than peptides, given their convenience in oral administration and lower cost. Herein we mainly discuss the mechanisms and clinical prospects of TLR4 agonists and antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Li
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100032, China
| | - Adam Csakai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309-0596, USA
| | - Jialin Jin
- Center of Basic Molecular Science, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100082, China
- Physikalisch-Astronomische Fakultät, Abbe School of Photonics, Jena, 07743, Germany
| | - Fengchun Zhang
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100032, China.
| | - Hang Yin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309-0596, USA.
- Center of Basic Molecular Science, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100082, China.
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Rakers C, Bermudez M, Keller BG, Mortier J, Wolber G. Computational close up on protein-protein interactions: how to unravel the invisible using molecular dynamics simulations? WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-COMPUTATIONAL MOLECULAR SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/wcms.1222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christin Rakers
- Institute of Pharmacy; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Marcel Bermudez
- Institute of Pharmacy; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Bettina G. Keller
- Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Jérémie Mortier
- Institute of Pharmacy; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Gerhard Wolber
- Institute of Pharmacy; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin Germany
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7
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Jiang C, Xu L, Chen L, Han Y, Tang J, Yang Y, Zhang G, Liu W. Selective suppression of microglial activation by paeoniflorin attenuates morphine tolerance. Eur J Pain 2014; 19:908-19. [DOI: 10.1002/ejp.617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. Jiang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration; Department of Pharmacology; Nanjing Medical University; China
- Research Division of Pharmacology; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - L. Xu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration; Department of Pharmacology; Nanjing Medical University; China
- Research Division of Pharmacology; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - L. Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration; Department of Pharmacology; Nanjing Medical University; China
- Research Division of Pharmacology; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - Y. Han
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration; Department of Pharmacology; Nanjing Medical University; China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology; Xuzhou Medical College; China
| | - J. Tang
- Department of Physiology; Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; China
| | - Y. Yang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration; Department of Pharmacology; Nanjing Medical University; China
| | - G. Zhang
- Research Division of Pharmacology; China Pharmaceutical University; Nanjing China
| | - W. Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration; Department of Pharmacology; Nanjing Medical University; China
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Wang X, Smith C, Yin H. Targeting Toll-like receptors with small molecule agents. Chem Soc Rev 2013; 42:4859-66. [PMID: 23503527 DOI: 10.1039/c3cs60039d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are type I transmembrane proteins that are key regulators of both innate and adaptive immune responses. To protect the host from viral and bacterial threats, TLRs trigger a pro-inflammatory immune response by detecting pathogen and danger associated molecular patterns. Considerable evidence has accumulated to show that the dysregulation of TLR signaling contributes to the development and progression of numerous diseases. Therefore, TLRs are emerging as important drug discovery targets. Currently, there is great interest in the development of TLR small molecule modulators for interrogating TLR signaling and treating diseases caused by TLR signaling malfunctions. In this tutorial review, we will outline methods for the discovery of TLR small molecule modulators and the up-to-date progress in this field. Small molecules targeting TLRs not only provide an opportunity to identify promising drug candidates, but also unveil knowledge regarding TLR signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the BioFrontiers Institute, 596 University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309-0596, USA
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Chan M, Hayashi T, Mathewson RD, Nour A, Hayashi Y, Yao S, Tawatao RI, Crain B, Tsigelny IF, Kouznetsova VL, Messer K, Pu M, Corr M, Carson DA, Cottam HB. Identification of substituted pyrimido[5,4-b]indoles as selective Toll-like receptor 4 ligands. J Med Chem 2013; 56:4206-23. [PMID: 23656327 PMCID: PMC3722616 DOI: 10.1021/jm301694x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
![]()
A cell-based
high-throughput screen to identify small molecular
weight stimulators of the innate immune system revealed substituted
pyrimido[5,4-b]indoles as potent NFκB activators.
The most potent hit compound selectively stimulated Toll-like receptor
4 (TLR4) in human and mouse cells. Synthetic modifications of the
pyrimido[5,4-b]indole scaffold at the carboxamide,
N-3, and N-5 positions revealed differential TLR4 dependent production
of NFκB and type I interferon associated cytokines, IL-6 and
interferon γ-induced protein 10 (IP-10) respectively. Specifically,
a subset of compounds bearing phenyl and substituted phenyl carboxamides
induced lower IL-6 release while maintaining higher IP-10 production,
skewing toward the type I interferon pathway. Substitution at N-5
with short alkyl substituents reduced the cytotoxicity of the leading
hit compound. Computational studies supported that active compounds
appeared to bind primarily to MD-2 in the TLR4/MD-2 complex. These
small molecules, which stimulate innate immune cells with minimal
toxicity, could potentially be used as adjuvants or immune modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Chan
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, USA
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Morphine activates neuroinflammation in a manner parallel to endotoxin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:6325-30. [PMID: 22474354 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1200130109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 354] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Opioids create a neuroinflammatory response within the CNS, compromising opioid-induced analgesia and contributing to various unwanted actions. How this occurs is unknown but has been assumed to be via classic opioid receptors. Herein, we provide direct evidence that morphine creates neuroinflammation via the activation of an innate immune receptor and not via classic opioid receptors. We demonstrate that morphine binds to an accessory protein of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation protein 2 (MD-2), thereby inducing TLR4 oligomerization and triggering proinflammation. Small-molecule inhibitors, RNA interference, and genetic knockout validate the TLR4/MD-2 complex as a feasible target for beneficially modifying morphine actions. Disrupting TLR4/MD-2 protein-protein association potentiated morphine analgesia in vivo and abolished morphine-induced proinflammation in vitro, the latter demonstrating that morphine-induced proinflammation only depends on TLR4, despite the presence of opioid receptors. These results provide an exciting, nonconventional avenue to improving the clinical efficacy of opioids.
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Han J, Kim HJ, Lee SC, Hong S, Park K, Jeon YH, Kim D, Cheong HK, Kim HS. Structure-based rational design of a Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) decoy receptor with high binding affinity for a target protein. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30929. [PMID: 22363519 PMCID: PMC3281905 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2011] [Accepted: 12/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeat proteins are increasingly attracting much attention as alternative scaffolds to immunoglobulin antibodies due to their unique structural features. Nonetheless, engineering interaction interface and understanding molecular basis for affinity maturation of repeat proteins still remain a challenge. Here, we present a structure-based rational design of a repeat protein with high binding affinity for a target protein. As a model repeat protein, a Toll-like receptor4 (TLR4) decoy receptor composed of leucine-rich repeat (LRR) modules was used, and its interaction interface was rationally engineered to increase the binding affinity for myeloid differentiation protein 2 (MD2). Based on the complex crystal structure of the decoy receptor with MD2, we first designed single amino acid substitutions in the decoy receptor, and obtained three variants showing a binding affinity (K(D)) one-order of magnitude higher than the wild-type decoy receptor. The interacting modes and contributions of individual residues were elucidated by analyzing the crystal structures of the single variants. To further increase the binding affinity, single positive mutations were combined, and two double mutants were shown to have about 3000- and 565-fold higher binding affinities than the wild-type decoy receptor. Molecular dynamics simulations and energetic analysis indicate that an additive effect by two mutations occurring at nearby modules was the major contributor to the remarkable increase in the binding affinities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieun Han
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Hyun Jung Kim
- Division of Magnetic Resonance Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongwon, Chungbuk, Korea
- College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, Korea
| | - Sang-Chul Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Seungpyo Hong
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Keunwan Park
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Young Ho Jeon
- Division of Magnetic Resonance Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongwon, Chungbuk, Korea
| | - Dongsup Kim
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Hae-Kap Cheong
- Division of Magnetic Resonance Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongwon, Chungbuk, Korea
- * E-mail: (H-KC); (H-SK)
| | - Hak-Sung Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
- Graduate School of Nanoscience and Technology, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
- * E-mail: (H-KC); (H-SK)
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