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Bishara Robertson IL, Zhang H, Reisner E, Butt JN, Jeuken LJC. Engineering of bespoke photosensitiser-microbe interfaces for enhanced semi-artificial photosynthesis. Chem Sci 2024; 15:9893-9914. [PMID: 38966358 PMCID: PMC11220614 DOI: 10.1039/d4sc00864b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Biohybrid systems for solar fuel production integrate artificial light-harvesting materials with biological catalysts such as microbes. In this perspective, we discuss the rational design of the abiotic-biotic interface in biohybrid systems by reviewing microbes and synthetic light-harvesting materials, as well as presenting various approaches to coupling these two components together. To maximise performance and scalability of such semi-artificial systems, we emphasise that the interfacial design requires consideration of two important aspects: attachment and electron transfer. It is our perspective that rational design of this photosensitiser-microbe interface is required for scalable solar fuel production. The design and assembly of a biohybrid with a well-defined electron transfer pathway allows mechanistic characterisation and optimisation for maximum efficiency. Introduction of additional catalysts to the system can close the redox cycle, omitting the need for sacrificial electron donors. Studies that electronically couple light-harvesters to well-defined biological entities, such as emerging photosensitiser-enzyme hybrids, provide valuable knowledge for the strategic design of whole-cell biohybrids. Exploring the interactions between light-harvesters and redox proteins can guide coupling strategies when translated into larger, more complex microbial systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Huijie Zhang
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University PO Box 9502 Leiden 2300 RA the Netherlands
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
| | - Julea N Butt
- School of Chemistry and School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia Norwich Research Park Norwich NR4 7TJ UK
| | - Lars J C Jeuken
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University PO Box 9502 Leiden 2300 RA the Netherlands
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2
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Chen YC, Li YT, Lee CL, Kuo YT, Ho CL, Lin WC, Hsu MC, Long X, Chen JS, Li WP, Su CH, Okamoto A, Yeh CS. Electroactive membrane fusion-liposome for increased electron transfer to enhance radiodynamic therapy. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 18:1492-1501. [PMID: 37537274 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-023-01476-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic therapies have potential in cancer treatments but have limitations in efficiency and penetration depth. Here a membrane-integrated liposome (MIL) is created to coat titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles to enhance electron transfer and increase radical production under low-dose X-ray irradiation. The exoelectrogenic Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 microorganism presents an innate capability for extracellular electron transfer (EET). An EET-mimicking photocatalytic system is created by coating the TiO2 nanoparticles with the MIL, which significantly enhances superoxide anions generation under low-dose (1 Gy) X-ray activation. The c-type cytochromes-constructed electron channel in the membrane mimics electron transfer to surrounding oxygen. Moreover, the hole transport in the valence band is also observed for water oxidation to produce hydroxyl radicals. The TiO2@MIL system is demonstrated against orthotopic liver tumours in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Chi Chen
- Department of Chemistry, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ting Li
- Department of Chemistry, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Lai Lee
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Ting Kuo
- Department of Chemistry, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Lun Ho
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Science, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Wei-Che Lin
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chien Hsu
- Department of Medicinal and Applied Chemistry, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Xizi Long
- International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (WPI-MANA), National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Jia-Sin Chen
- Department of Medicinal and Applied Chemistry, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Peng Li
- Department of Medicinal and Applied Chemistry, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
- Center of Applied Nanomedicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Chia-Hao Su
- Center for General Education, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan.
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Akihiro Okamoto
- International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (WPI-MANA), National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan.
- Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Chen-Sheng Yeh
- Department of Chemistry, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
- Center of Applied Nanomedicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
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3
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Li Y, Tian X, Chen L, Li J, Zhao F. Enhanced interfacial electron transfer between semiconductor and non-photosynthetic microorganism under visible light. Bioelectrochemistry 2022; 147:108195. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2022.108195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Transmembrane proteins involved in metabolic redox reactions and photosynthesis catalyse a plethora of key energy-conversion processes and are thus of great interest for bioelectrocatalysis-based applications. The development of membrane protein modified electrodes has made it possible to efficiently exchange electrons between proteins and electrodes, allowing mechanistic studies and potentially applications in biofuels generation and energy conversion. Here, we summarise the most common electrode modification and their characterisation techniques for membrane proteins involved in biofuels conversion and semi-artificial photosynthesis. We discuss the challenges of applications of membrane protein modified electrodes for bioelectrocatalysis and comment on emerging methods and future directions, including recent advances in membrane protein reconstitution strategies and the development of microbial electrosynthesis and whole-cell semi-artificial photosynthesis.
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5
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Wroblewska-Wolna AM, Harvie AJ, Rowe SF, Critchley K, Butt JN, Jeuken LJC. Quantum dot interactions with and toxicity to Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 31:134005. [PMID: 31810073 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab5f78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Combining abiotic photosensitisers such as quantum dots (QDs) with non-photosynthetic bacteria presents an intriguing concept into the design of artificial photosynthetic organisms and solar-driven fuel production. Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 (MR-1) is a versatile bacterium concerning respiration, metabolism and biocatalysis, and is a promising organism for artificial photosynthesis as the bacterium's synthetic and catalytic ability provides a potential system for bacterial biohydrogen production. MR-1's hydrogenases are present in the periplasmatic space. It follows that for photoenergised electrons to reach these enzymes, QDs will need to be able to enter the periplasm, or electrons need to enter the periplasm via the Mtr pathway that is responsible for MR-1's extracellular electron transfer ability. As a step towards this goal, various QDs were tested for their photo-reducing potential, nanotoxicology and further for their interaction with MR-1. CdTe/CdS/TGA, CdTe/CdS/Cysteamine, a commercial, negatively charged CdTe and CuInS2/ZnS/PMAL QDs were examined. The photoreduction potential of the QDs was confirmed by measuring their ability to photoreduce methyl viologen with different sacrificial electron donors. The commercial CdTe and CuInS2/ZnS/PMAL QDs showed no toxicity towards MR-1 as evaluated by a colony-forming units method and a fluorescence viability assay. Only the commercial negatively charged CdTe QDs showed good interaction with MR-1. With transmission electron microscopy, QDs were observed both in the cytoplasm and periplasm. These results inform on the possibilities and bottlenecks when developing bionanotechnological systems for the photosynthetic production of biohydrogen by MR-1.
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6
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Utterback JK, Ruzicka JL, Keller HR, Pellows LM, Dukovic G. Electron Transfer from Semiconductor Nanocrystals to Redox Enzymes. Annu Rev Phys Chem 2020; 71:335-359. [PMID: 32074472 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physchem-050317-014232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes progress in understanding electron transfer from photoexcited nanocrystals to redox enzymes. The combination of the light-harvesting properties of nanocrystals and the catalytic properties of redox enzymes has emerged as a versatile platform to drive a variety of enzyme-catalyzed reactions with light. Transfer of a photoexcited charge from a nanocrystal to an enzyme is a critical first step for these reactions. This process has been studied in depth in systems that combine Cd-chalcogenide nanocrystals with hydrogenases. The two components can be assembled in close proximity to enable direct interfacial electron transfer or integrated with redox mediators to transport charges. Time-resolved spectroscopy and kinetic modeling have been used to measure the rates and efficiencies of the electron transfer. Electron transfer has been described within the framework of Marcus theory, providing insights into the factors that can be used to control the photochemical activity of these biohybrid systems. The range of potential applications and reactions that can be achieved using nanocrystal-enzyme systems is expanding, and numerous fundamental and practical questions remain to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James K Utterback
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA; , , .,Current affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA;
| | - Jesse L Ruzicka
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA; , ,
| | - Helena R Keller
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA;
| | - Lauren M Pellows
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA; , ,
| | - Gordana Dukovic
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA; , ,
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LUO X, WU Y, LIU T, LI F, LI X, CHEN D, WANG Y. Quantifying Redox Dynamics of c-Type Cytochromes in a Living Cell Suspension of Dissimilatory Metal-reducing Bacteria. ANAL SCI 2019; 35:315-321. [DOI: 10.2116/analsci.18p394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobo LUO
- Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Guangdong Institute of Eco-environmental Science & Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Agro-environmental Pollution Control and Management
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Yundang WU
- Guangdong Institute of Eco-environmental Science & Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Agro-environmental Pollution Control and Management
| | - Tongxu LIU
- Guangdong Institute of Eco-environmental Science & Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Agro-environmental Pollution Control and Management
| | - Fangbai LI
- Guangdong Institute of Eco-environmental Science & Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Agro-environmental Pollution Control and Management
| | - Xiaomin LI
- The Environmental Research Institute, MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University
| | - Dandan CHEN
- Guangdong Institute of Eco-environmental Science & Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Agro-environmental Pollution Control and Management
| | - Ying WANG
- Guangdong Institute of Eco-environmental Science & Technology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Integrated Agro-environmental Pollution Control and Management
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8
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Stikane A, Hwang ET, Ainsworth E, Piper SEH, Critchley K, Butt JN, Reisner E, Jeuken LJC. Towards compartmentalized photocatalysis: multihaem proteins as transmembrane molecular electron conduits. Faraday Discuss 2019; 215:26-38. [DOI: 10.1039/c8fd00163d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We show a proof-of-concept for using MtrCAB as a lipid membrane-spanning building block for compartmentalised photocatalysis that mimics photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Stikane
- School of Biomedical Sciences
- University of Leeds
- Leeds
- UK
- The Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology
| | - Ee Taek Hwang
- School of Biomedical Sciences
- University of Leeds
- Leeds
- UK
- The Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology
| | - Emma V. Ainsworth
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry
- School of Chemistry and School of Biological Sciences
- University of East Anglia
- Norwich
- UK
| | - Samuel E. H. Piper
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry
- School of Chemistry and School of Biological Sciences
- University of East Anglia
- Norwich
- UK
| | - Kevin Critchley
- The Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology
- University of Leeds
- Leeds
- UK
- School of Physics and Astronomy
| | - Julea N. Butt
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry
- School of Chemistry and School of Biological Sciences
- University of East Anglia
- Norwich
- UK
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Cambridge
- Cambridge
- UK
| | - Lars J. C. Jeuken
- School of Biomedical Sciences
- University of Leeds
- Leeds
- UK
- The Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology
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9
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Ponomarenko N, Niklas J, Pokkuluri PR, Poluektov O, Tiede DM. Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Characterization of the Triheme Cytochrome from Geobacter sulfurreducens. Biochemistry 2018; 57:1722-1732. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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10
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Lockwood CW, van Wonderen JH, Edwards MJ, Piper SE, White GF, Newton-Payne S, Richardson DJ, Clarke TA, Butt JN. Membrane-spanning electron transfer proteins from electrogenic bacteria: Production and investigation. Methods Enzymol 2018; 613:257-275. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2018.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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11
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Rowe SF, Le Gall G, Ainsworth EV, Davies JA, Lockwood CWJ, Shi L, Elliston A, Roberts IN, Waldron KW, Richardson DJ, Clarke TA, Jeuken LJC, Reisner E, Butt JN. Light-Driven H2 Evolution and C═C or C═O Bond Hydrogenation by Shewanella oneidensis: A Versatile Strategy for Photocatalysis by Nonphotosynthetic Microorganisms. ACS Catal 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.7b02736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sam F. Rowe
- School
of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, U.K
| | - Gwénaëlle Le Gall
- Quadram
Institute for Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UA, U.K
| | - Emma V. Ainsworth
- School
of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, U.K
| | - Jonathan A. Davies
- School
of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, U.K
| | - Colin W. J. Lockwood
- School
of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, U.K
| | - Liang Shi
- Department
of Biological Sciences and Technology, China University of Geoscience in Wuhan, Wuhan 430074, People’s Republic of China
| | - Adam Elliston
- Quadram
Institute for Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UA, U.K
| | - Ian N. Roberts
- Quadram
Institute for Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UA, U.K
| | - Keith W. Waldron
- Quadram
Institute for Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UA, U.K
| | - David J. Richardson
- School
of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, U.K
| | - Thomas A. Clarke
- School
of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, U.K
| | - Lars J. C. Jeuken
- School
of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
| | - Julea N. Butt
- School
of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, U.K
- School
of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, U.K
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12
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Fukushima T, Gupta S, Rad B, Cornejo JA, Petzold CJ, Chan LJG, Mizrahi RA, Ralston CY, Ajo-Franklin CM. The Molecular Basis for Binding of an Electron Transfer Protein to a Metal Oxide Surface. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:12647-12654. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b06560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Fukushima
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Sayan Gupta
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Behzad Rad
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jose A. Cornejo
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Christopher J. Petzold
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Leanne Jade G. Chan
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Rena A. Mizrahi
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Corie Y. Ralston
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Caroline M. Ajo-Franklin
- Molecular Foundry, Molecular
Biophysics and Integrated Biosciences, and Biological Systems and
Engineering Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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13
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Ainsworth EV, Lockwood CWJ, White GF, Hwang ET, Sakai T, Gross MA, Richardson DJ, Clarke TA, Jeuken LJC, Reisner E, Butt JN. Photoreduction of Shewanella oneidensis Extracellular Cytochromes by Organic Chromophores and Dye-Sensitized TiO 2. Chembiochem 2016; 17:2324-2333. [PMID: 27685371 PMCID: PMC5215560 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The transfer of photoenergized electrons from extracellular photosensitizers across a bacterial cell envelope to drive intracellular chemical transformations represents an attractive way to harness nature's catalytic machinery for solar-assisted chemical synthesis. In Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 (MR-1), trans-outer-membrane electron transfer is performed by the extracellular cytochromes MtrC and OmcA acting together with the outer-membrane-spanning porin⋅cytochrome complex (MtrAB). Here we demonstrate photoreduction of solutions of MtrC, OmcA, and the MtrCAB complex by soluble photosensitizers: namely, eosin Y, fluorescein, proflavine, flavin, and adenine dinucleotide, as well as by riboflavin and flavin mononucleotide, two compounds secreted by MR-1. We show photoreduction of MtrC and OmcA adsorbed on RuII -dye-sensitized TiO2 nanoparticles and that these protein-coated particles perform photocatalytic reduction of solutions of MtrC, OmcA, and MtrCAB. These findings provide a framework for informed development of strategies for using the outer-membrane-associated cytochromes of MR-1 for solar-driven microbial synthesis in natural and engineered bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma V. Ainsworth
- School of ChemistryUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorfolkNR4 7TJUK
| | - Colin W. J. Lockwood
- School of ChemistryUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorfolkNR4 7TJUK
| | - Gaye F. White
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorfolkNR4 7TJUK
| | - Ee Taek Hwang
- School of Biomedical SciencesUniversity of LeedsLeedsLS2 9JTUK
| | - Tsubasa Sakai
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridgeCB2 1EWUK
- Present address: Suntory Foundation for Life SciencesKyoto619-0284Japan
| | - Manuela A. Gross
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridgeCB2 1EWUK
| | - David J. Richardson
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorfolkNR4 7TJUK
| | - Thomas A. Clarke
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorfolkNR4 7TJUK
| | | | - Erwin Reisner
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridgeCB2 1EWUK
| | - Julea N. Butt
- School of ChemistryUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorfolkNR4 7TJUK
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNorfolkNR4 7TJUK
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