Probing the Outstanding Local Hydrophobicity Increases in Peptide Sequences Induced by Incorporation of Trifluoromethylated Amino Acids

Synthesis and biological evaluation of selective Pepstatin based trifluoromethylated inhibitors of Cathepsin D

Cathepsin D (CD) is overexpressed in several types of cancer and constitutes an important biological target. Pepstatin A, a pentapeptide incorporating two non-proteinogenic statin residues, is among the most potent inhibitor of CD but lacks selectivity and suffers from poor bioavailability. Eight analogues of Pepstatin A, were synthesized, replacing residues in P3 or P1 position by non-canonical (S)- and (R)-α-Trifluoromethyl Alanine (TfmAla), (S)- and (R)-Trifluoromethionine (TFM) or non-natural d-Valine. The biological activities of those analogues were quantified on isolated CD and Pepsin by fluorescence-based assay (FRET) and cytotoxicity of the best fluorinated inhibitors was evaluated on SKOV3 ovarian cancer cell line. (R)-TFM based analog of Pepstatin A (compound 6) returned a sub-nanomolar IC50 against CD and an increased selectivity. Molecular Docking experiments could partially rationalize these results. Stabilized inhibitor 6 in the catalytic pocket of CD showed strong hydrophobic interactions of the long and flexible TFM side chain with lipophilic residues of S1 and S3 sub-pockets of the catalytic pocket. The newly synthesized inhibitors returned no cytotoxicity at IC50 concentrations on SKOV3 cancer cells, however the compounds derived from (S)-TfmAla and (R)-TFM led to modifications of cells morphologies, associated with altered organization of F-actin and extracellular Fibronectin.

Difluoroalanine: Synthesis, Incorporation in Peptides, and Hydrophobic Contribution Assessment

The straightforward synthesis of chiral (R)- and (S)-difluoroalanine is reported. The key step is a Strecker-type reaction followed by hydrogenolysis, Fmoc protection, and acidic hydrolysis. Peptide coupling reactions at its N- and C-terminal positions provide diastereomerically pure tripeptides. On the basis of hydrophobicity index measurements, the hydrophobic contribution of difluoroalanine in a peptide chain was found to be similar to that of isoleucine for a smaller van der Waals volume of the side chain.

Trifluoromethylthiolation of Tryptophan and Tyrosine Derivatives: A Tool for Enhancing the Local Hydrophobicity of Peptides

The incorporation of fluorinated groups into peptides significantly affects their biophysical properties. We report herein the synthesis of Fmoc-protected trifluoromethylthiolated tyrosine (CF3S-Tyr) and tryptophan (CF3S-Trp) analogues on a gram scale (77-93% yield) and demonstrate their use as highly hydrophobic fluorinated building blocks for peptide chemistry. The developed methodology was successfully applied to the late-stage regioselective trifluoromethylthiolation of Trp residues in short peptides (66-80% yield) and the synthesis of various CF3S-analogues of biologically active monoamines. To prove the concept, Fmoc-(CF3S)Tyr and -Trp were incorporated into the endomorphin-1 chain (EM-1) and into model tripeptides by solid-phase peptide synthesis. A remarkable enhancement of the local hydrophobicity of the trifluoromethylthiolated peptides was quantified by the chromatographic hydrophobicity index determination method, demonstrating the high potential of CF3S-containing amino acids for the rational design of bioactive peptides.

Introducing the Chiral Constrained α-Trifluoromethylalanine in Aib foldamers to Control, Quantify and Assign the Helical Screw-Sense

Oligomers of α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) are achiral peptides that adopt 3 10 helical structures with equal population of left- and right-handed conformers. Yet, the screw-sense preference of the helical chain may be controlled by a single chiral residue located at one terminus. 1 H and 19 F NMR, X-ray crystallography and circular dichroism studies on new Aib oligomers show that the incorporation of a chiral quaternary α-trifluoromethylalanine at their N -terminus induces a reversal of the screw-sense preference of the 3 10 -helix compared to that of a non-fluorinated analogue having an l-α-methyl valine residue. This work demonstrates that, among the many particular properties of introducing a trifluoromethyl group into foldamers, its stereo-electronic properties are of major interest to control the helical screw sense. Its use as an easy-to-handle 19 F NMR probe to reliably determine both the magnitude of the screw-sense preference and its sign assignment is also of remarkable interest.

Synthesis of enantiopure α-Tfm-proline and α-Tfm-pipecolic acid from oxazolo-pyrrolidines and -piperidines

Enantiopure α-Tfm-proline and α-Tfm-pipecolic acid were synthesized starting from commercially available diesters and ethyl trifluoroacetate. A Strecker type reaction on intermediate chiral Tfm-oxazolo-pyrrolidine and -piperidine provided the corresponding nitrile precursor of enantiopure (R) and (S) α-Tfm-proline and α-Tfm-pipecolic acid. The C-terminal peptide coupling reaction of α-Tfm-pipecolic acid has been successfully achieved.

Enantiopure 5-CF3-Proline: Synthesis, Incorporation in Peptides, and Tuning of the Peptide Bond Geometry

The straightforward synthesis of enantiopure 5-(R)-and 5-(S)-trifluoromethylproline is reported. The key steps are a Ruppert-Prakash reagent addition on l-pyroglutamic esters followed by an elimination reaction and a selective reduction. The solution-phase and solid-phase incorporation of this unprotected enantiopure fluorinated amino acid in a short peptide chain was demonstrated. Compared to proline, the CF₃ group provides a decrease of the trans to cis amide bond isomerization energy and an increase of the cis conformer population.

Enantiopure α-Trifluoromethylated Aziridine-2-carboxylic Acid (α-TfmAzy): Synthesis and Peptide Coupling

A straightforward synthesis of enantiopure α-trifluoromethyl aziridine-2-carboxylic acid (α-TfmAzy) is reported from a trifluoropyruvate derived enantiopure oxazolidine. A key Strecker-type synthetic step and a late cyanide basic hydrolysis gave the target compounds in six steps and 41% yield. A final peptide coupling was performed to demonstrate the usefulness of this highly constrained fluorinated unnatural amino acid.

CF2H as a hydrogen bond donor group for the fine tuning of peptide bond geometry with difluoromethylated pseudoprolines

CF₂H-Pseudoprolines obtained from difluoroacetaldehyde hemiacetal and serine are stable proline surrogates. The consequence of the incorporation of the CF₂H group is an important decrease of the trans to cis amide bond isomerization energy and a remarkable stabilisation of the cis conformer by an hydrogen bond.

Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of unactivated alkylzinc reagents with 2-bromo-3,3,3-trifluoropropene and its application in the synthesis of fluorinated amino acids

A palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of unactivated alkylzinc reagents with 2-bromo-3,3,3-trifluoropropene (BTP) has been developed, which was used as a key step to prepare a series of trifluoromethylated and difluoromethylated amino acids.

Unexpected trends in the hydrophobicity of fluorinated amino acids reflect competing changes in polarity and conformation

The hydration free energy of fluorinated amino acids is calculated with molecular simulations and explained with an analytical model.

Trifluoromethylated proline analogues as efficient tools to enhance the hydrophobicity and to promote passive diffusion transport of the l-prolyl-l-leucyl glycinamide (PLG) tripeptide

The incorporation of trifluoromethylated proline analogues in the tripeptide PLG enhances its hydrophobicity and promotes passive diffusion transport.