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Rad AN, Grillari J. Current senolytics: Mode of action, efficacy and limitations, and their future. Mech Ageing Dev 2024; 217:111888. [PMID: 38040344 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2023.111888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Senescence is a cellular state characterized by its near-permanent halted cell cycle and distinct secretory phenotype. Although senescent cells have a variety of beneficial physiological functions, progressive accumulation of these cells due to aging or other conditions has been widely shown to provoke deleterious effects on the normal functioning of the same or higher-level biological organizations. Recently, erasing senescent cells in vivo, using senolytics, could ameliorate diseases identified with an elevated number of senescent cells. Since then, researchers have struggled to develop new senolytics each with different selectivity and potency. In this review, we have gathered and classified the proposed senolytics and discussed their mechanisms of action. Moreover, we highlight the heterogeneity of senolytics regarding their effect sizes, and cell type specificity as well as comment on the exploited strategies to improve these features. Finally, we suggest some prospective routes for the novel methods for ablation of senescent cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirhossein Nayeri Rad
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 71468-64685, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Johannes Grillari
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Traumatology, The Research Center in Cooperation with AUVA, Donaueschingenstraße 13, 1200 Vienna, Austria; Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, 1200 Vienna, Austria; Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
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2
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Niţu CD, Mernea M, Vlasceanu RI, Voicu-Balasea B, Badea MA, Raduly FM, Rădiţoiu V, Rădiţoiu A, Avram S, Mihailescu DF, Voinea IC, Stan MS. Biomedical Promise of Sustainable Microwave-Engineered Symmetric Curcumin Derivatives. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:205. [PMID: 38399259 PMCID: PMC10892556 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16020205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Curcumin is a polyphenol of the Curcuma longa plant, which can be used for various medicinal purposes, such as inflammation and cancer treatment. In this context, two symmetric curcumin derivatives (D1-(1E,6E)-1,7-bis(4-acetamidophenyl)hepta-1,6-diene-3,5-dione and D2-p,p-dihydroxy di-cinnamoyl methane) were obtained by the microwave-based method and evaluated for their antitumoral effect on human cervix cancer in comparison with toxicity on non-tumoral cells, taking into account that they were predicted to act as apoptosis agonists or anti-inflammatory agents. The HeLa cell line was incubated for 24 and 72 h with a concentration of 50 μg/mL of derivatives that killed almost half of the cells compared to the control. In contrast, these compounds did not alter the viability of MRC-5 non-tumoral lung fibroblasts until 72 h of incubation. The nitric oxide level released by HeLa cells was higher compared to MRC-5 fibroblasts after the incubation with 100 μg/mL. Both derivatives induced the decrease of catalase activity and glutathione levels in cancer cells without targeting the same effect in non-tumoral cells. Furthermore, the Western blot showed an increased protein expression of HSP70 and a decreased expression of HSP60 and MCM2 in cells incubated with D2 compared to control cells. We noticed differences regarding the intensity of cell death between the tested derivatives, suggesting that the modified structure after synthesis can modulate their function, the most prominent effect being observed for sample D2. In conclusion, the outcomes of our in vitro study revealed that these microwave-engineered curcumin derivatives targeted tumor cells, much more specifically, inducing their death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Doina Niţu
- Department of Anatomy, Animal Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independenţei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (C.D.N.); (M.M.); (S.A.); (D.F.M.)
- Institute of Oncology “Prof. Dr. Al. Trestioreanu”, 252 Sos. Fundeni, 022328 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Maria Mernea
- Department of Anatomy, Animal Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independenţei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (C.D.N.); (M.M.); (S.A.); (D.F.M.)
| | - Raluca Ioana Vlasceanu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (R.I.V.); (B.V.-B.); (M.A.B.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Bianca Voicu-Balasea
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (R.I.V.); (B.V.-B.); (M.A.B.); (M.S.S.)
- Interdisciplinary Center of Research and Development in Dentistry (CICDS), Faculty of Dental Medicine, “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Madalina Andreea Badea
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (R.I.V.); (B.V.-B.); (M.A.B.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Florentina Monica Raduly
- Laboratory of Functional Dyes and Related Materials, National Research and Development Institute for Chemistry and Petrochemistry—ICECHIM, 202 Splaiul Independentei, 6th District, 060021 Bucharest, Romania; (F.M.R.); (V.R.); (A.R.)
| | - Valentin Rădiţoiu
- Laboratory of Functional Dyes and Related Materials, National Research and Development Institute for Chemistry and Petrochemistry—ICECHIM, 202 Splaiul Independentei, 6th District, 060021 Bucharest, Romania; (F.M.R.); (V.R.); (A.R.)
| | - Alina Rădiţoiu
- Laboratory of Functional Dyes and Related Materials, National Research and Development Institute for Chemistry and Petrochemistry—ICECHIM, 202 Splaiul Independentei, 6th District, 060021 Bucharest, Romania; (F.M.R.); (V.R.); (A.R.)
| | - Speranta Avram
- Department of Anatomy, Animal Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independenţei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (C.D.N.); (M.M.); (S.A.); (D.F.M.)
| | - Dan F. Mihailescu
- Department of Anatomy, Animal Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independenţei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (C.D.N.); (M.M.); (S.A.); (D.F.M.)
| | - Ionela C. Voinea
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (R.I.V.); (B.V.-B.); (M.A.B.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Miruna Silvia Stan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91–95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania; (R.I.V.); (B.V.-B.); (M.A.B.); (M.S.S.)
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Kim S, Chae JB, Kim D, Park CW, Sim Y, Lee H, Park G, Lee J, Hong S, Jana B, Kim C, Chung H, Ryu JH. Supramolecular Senolytics via Intracellular Oligomerization of Peptides in Response to Elevated Reactive Oxygen Species Levels in Aging Cells. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:21991-22008. [PMID: 37664981 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c06898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Senolytics, which eliminate senescent cells from tissues, represent an emerging therapeutic strategy for various age-related diseases. Most senolytics target antiapoptotic proteins, which are overexpressed in senescent cells, limiting specificity and inducing severe side effects. To overcome these limitations, we constructed self-assembling senolytics targeting senescent cells with an intracellular oligomerization system. Intracellular aryl-dithiol-containing peptide oligomerization occurred only inside the mitochondria of senescent cells due to selective localization of the peptides by RGD-mediated cellular uptake into integrin αvβ3-overexpressed senescent cells and elevated levels of reactive oxygen species, which can be used as a chemical fuel for disulfide formation. This oligomerization results in an artificial protein-like nanoassembly with a stable α-helix secondary structure, which can disrupt the mitochondrial membrane via multivalent interactions because the mitochondrial membrane of senescent cells has weaker integrity than that of normal cells. These three specificities (integrin αvβ3, high ROS, and weak mitochondrial membrane integrity) of senescent cells work in combination; therefore, this intramitochondrial oligomerization system can selectively induce apoptosis of senescent cells without side effects on normal cells. Significant reductions in key senescence markers and amelioration of retinal degeneration were observed after elimination of the senescent retinal pigment epithelium by this peptide senolytic in an age-related macular degeneration mouse model and in aged mice, and this effect was accompanied by improved visual function. This system provides a strategy for the treatment of age-related diseases using supramolecular senolytics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangpil Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Byoung Chae
- Department of Ophthalmology, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Dohyun Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul-Woo Park
- Department of Ophthalmology, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Youjung Sim
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyungwoo Lee
- Department of Ophthalmology, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Gaeun Park
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaeeun Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongho Hong
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Batakrishna Jana
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Chaekyu Kim
- Fusion Biotechnology, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyewon Chung
- Department of Ophthalmology, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Ja-Hyoung Ryu
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
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Nehlin JO. Senolytic and senomorphic interventions to defy senescence-associated mitochondrial dysfunction. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2023; 136:217-247. [PMID: 37437979 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2023.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of senescent cells in the aging individual is associated with an increase in the occurrence of age-associated pathologies that contribute to poor health, frailty, and mortality. The number and type of senescent cells is viewed as a contributor to the body's senescence burden. Cellular models of senescence are based on induction of senescence in cultured cells in the laboratory. One type of senescence is triggered by mitochondrial dysfunction. There are several indications that mitochondria defects contribute to body aging. Senotherapeutics, targeting senescent cells, have been shown to induce their lysis by means of senolytics, or repress expression of their secretome, by means of senomorphics, senostatics or gerosuppressors. An outline of the mechanism of action of various senotherapeutics targeting mitochondria and senescence-associated mitochondria dysfunction will be here addressed. The combination of geroprotective interventions together with senotherapeutics will help to strengthen mitochondrial energy metabolism, biogenesis and turnover, and lengthen the mitochondria healthspan, minimizing one of several molecular pathways contributing to the aging phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan O Nehlin
- Department of Clinical Research, Copenhagen University Hospital, Amager and Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark.
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Homolak J. Targeting the microbiota-mitochondria crosstalk in neurodegeneration with senotherapeutics. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2023; 136:339-383. [PMID: 37437983 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2023.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are a group of age-related disorders characterized by a chronic and progressive loss of function and/or structure of synapses, neurons, and glial cells. The etiopathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases is characterized by a complex network of intricately intertwined pathophysiological processes that are still not fully understood. Safe and effective disease-modifying treatments are urgently needed, but still not available. Accumulating evidence suggests that gastrointestinal dyshomeostasis and microbial dysbiosis might play an important role in neurodegeneration by acting as either primary or secondary pathophysiological factors. The research on the role of microbiota in neurodegeneration is in its early phase; however, accumulating evidence suggests that dysbiosis might promote neurodegenerative diseases by disrupting mitochondrial function and inducing mitochondrial dysfunction-associated senescence (MiDAS), possibly due to bidirectional crosstalk based on the common evolutionary origin of mitochondria and bacteria. Cellular senescence is an onco-supressive homeostatic mechanism that results in an irreversible cell cycle arrest upon exposure to noxious stimuli. Senescent cells resist apoptosis via senescent cell anti-apoptotic pathways (SCAPs) and transition into a state known as senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) that generates a cytotoxic proinflammatory microenvironment. Cellular senescence results in the adoption of a detrimental vicious cycle driven by dysbiosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and oxidative stress - a pathophysiological positive feedback loop that results in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Detrimental effects of MiDAS might be prevented and abolished by mitochondria-targeted senotherapeutics, a group of drugs specifically designed to alleviate senescence by inhibiting SCAPs (senolytics), or inhibiting SASP (senomorphics).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Homolak
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia; Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Atayik MC, Çakatay U. Mitochondria-associated cellular senescence mechanisms: Biochemical and pharmacological perspectives. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 37437976 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2023.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
Abstract
Initially, endosymbiotic relation of mitochondria and other cellular compartments had been continued mutually. However, that evolutionary adaptation impaired because of the deterioration of endosymbiotic crosstalk due to aging and several pathological consequences in cellular redox status are seen, such as deterioration in redox integrity of mitochondria, interfered inter-organelle redox signaling and inefficient antioxidant response element mediated gene expression. Although the dysfunction of mitochondria is known to be a classical pattern of senescence, it is unresolved that why dysfunctional mitochondria is the core of senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Redox impairment and SASP-related disease development are generally together with weaken immunity. Impaired mitochondrial redox integrity and its ineffectiveness in immunity control render elders to be more prone to age-related diseases. As senotherapeutic agents, senolytics remove senescent cells whilst senomorphics/senostatics inhibits the secretion of SASP. Senotherapeutics and the novel approaches for ameliorating SASP-related unfavorable effects are recently thought to be promising ways as mitochondria-targeted gerotherapeutic options.
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Jeena MT, Jin S, Jana B, Ryu JH. Enzyme-instructed morphology transformation of mitochondria-targeting peptide for the selective eradication of osteosarcoma. RSC Chem Biol 2022; 3:1416-1421. [PMID: 36544576 PMCID: PMC9709777 DOI: 10.1039/d2cb00166g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of osteosarcoma involves an adjuvant therapy that combines surgery and chemotherapy. However, considering that children are the main victims of osteosarcoma, replacing such a harsh treatment with a soft but powerful method that ensures a complete cure while having no adverse effects is highly desirable. To achieve this aim, we have developed a supramolecular therapeutic strategy based on morphology-transformable mitochondria-targeting peptides for the eradication of osteosarcoma with enhanced selectivity and reduced side effects. A newly designed micelle-forming amphiphilic peptide, l-Mito-FFYp, consisting of a phosphate substrate for the biomarker enzyme of osteosarcoma alkaline phosphatase (ALP), disassembles in response to the ALP enzyme in the cell membrane to generate positively charged l-Mito-FFY molecules, which diffuse inside the targeted cell and self-assemble to form nanostructures specifically inside the mitochondria to induce cell apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. T. Jeena
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)Ulsan 44919Republic of Korea
| | - Seongeon Jin
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)Ulsan 44919Republic of Korea
| | - Batakrishna Jana
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)Ulsan 44919Republic of Korea
| | - Ja-Hyoung Ryu
- Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST)Ulsan 44919Republic of Korea
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Atayik MC, Çakatay U. Mitochondria-targeted senotherapeutic interventions. Biogerontology 2022; 23:401-423. [PMID: 35781579 DOI: 10.1007/s10522-022-09973-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Healthy aging is the art of balancing a delicate scale. On one side of the scale, there are the factors that make life difficult with aging, and on the other side are the products of human effort against these factors. The most important factors that make the life difficult with aging are age-related disorders. Developing senotherapeutic strategies may bring effective solutions for the sufferers of age-related disorders. Mitochondrial dysfunction comes first in elucidating the pathogenesis of age-related disorders and presenting appropriate treatment options. Although it has been widely accepted that mitochondrial dysfunction is a common characteristic of cellular senescence, it still remains unclear why dysfunctional mitochondria occupy a central position in the development senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) related to age-related disorders. Mitochondrial dysfunction and SASP-related disease progression are closely interlinked to weaken immunity which is a common phenomenon in aging. A group of substances known as senotherapeutics targeted to senescent cells can be classified into two main groups: senolytics (kill senescent cells) and senomorphics/senostatics (suppress their SASP secretions) in order to extend health lifespan and potentially lifespan. As mitochondria are also closely related to the survival of senescent cells, using either mitochondria-targeted senolytic or redox modulator senomorphic strategies may help us to solve the complex problems with the detrimental consequences of cellular senescence. Killing of senescent cells and/or ameliorate their SASP-related negative effects are currently considered to be effective mitochondria-directed gerotherapeutic approaches for fighting against age-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Can Atayik
- Cerrahpasa Faculty of Medicine, Medical Program, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ufuk Çakatay
- Cerrahpasa Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Hu L, Li H, Zi M, Li W, Liu J, Yang Y, Zhou D, Kong QP, Zhang Y, He Y. Why Senescent Cells Are Resistant to Apoptosis: An Insight for Senolytic Development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:822816. [PMID: 35252191 PMCID: PMC8890612 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.822816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular senescence is a process that leads to a state of irreversible cell growth arrest induced by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic stresses. Senescent cells (SnCs) accumulate with age and have been implicated in various age-related diseases in part via expressing the senescence-associated secretory phenotype. Elimination of SnCs has the potential to delay aging, treat age-related diseases and extend healthspan. However, once cells becoming senescent, they are more resistant to apoptotic stimuli. Senolytics can selectively eliminate SnCs by targeting the SnC anti-apoptotic pathways (SCAPs). They have been developed as a novel pharmacological strategy to treat various age-related diseases. However, the heterogeneity of the SnCs indicates that SnCs depend on different proteins or pathways for their survival. Thus, a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms for apoptotic resistance of SnCs will provide new molecular targets for the development of cell-specific or broad-spectrum therapeutics to clear SnCs. In this review, we discussed the latest research progresses and challenge in senolytic development, described the significance of regulation of senescence and apoptosis in aging, and systematically summarized the SCAPs involved in the apoptotic resistance in SnCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Hu
- Department of Geriatrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China.,College of Basic Medicine and Life Sciences, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Huiqin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Meiting Zi
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Endocrinology, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Lab of Molecular Genetics of Aging and Tumor, Medical School, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Daohong Zhou
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Qing-Peng Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Yunxia Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China.,College of Basic Medicine and Life Sciences, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Yonghan He
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
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