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Chen P, Wang Y, Zhou B. Insights into targeting cellular senescence with senolytic therapy: The journey from preclinical trials to clinical practice. Mech Ageing Dev 2024; 218:111918. [PMID: 38401690 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2024.111918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Interconnected, fundamental aging processes are central to many illnesses and diseases. Cellular senescence is a mechanism that halts the cell cycle in response to harmful stimuli. Senescent cells (SnCs) can emerge at any point in life, and their persistence, along with the numerous proteins they secrete, can negatively affect tissue function. Interventions aimed at combating persistent SnCs, which can destroy tissues, have been used in preclinical models to delay, halt, or even reverse various diseases. Consequently, the development of small-molecule senolytic medicines designed to specifically eliminate SnCs has opened potential avenues for the prevention or treatment of multiple diseases and age-related issues in humans. In this review, we explore the most promising approaches for translating small-molecule senolytics and other interventions targeting senescence in clinical practice. This discussion highlights the rationale for considering SnCs as therapeutic targets for diseases affecting individuals of all ages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430060, PR China.
| | - Yulai Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Huangshi Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Benhong Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430060, PR China
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2
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Khan S, Cao L, Wiegand J, Zhang P, Zajac-Kaye M, Kaye FJ, Zheng G, Zhou D. PROTAC-Mediated Dual Degradation of BCL-xL and BCL-2 Is a Highly Effective Therapeutic Strategy in Small-Cell Lung Cancer. Cells 2024; 13:528. [PMID: 38534371 PMCID: PMC10968744 DOI: 10.3390/cells13060528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BCL-xL and BCL-2 are validated therapeutic targets in small-cell lung cancer (SCLC). Targeting these proteins with navitoclax (formerly ABT263, a dual BCL-xL/2 inhibitor) induces dose-limiting thrombocytopenia through on-target BCL-xL inhibition in platelets. Therefore, platelet toxicity poses a barrier in advancing the clinical translation of navitoclax. We have developed a strategy to selectively target BCL-xL in tumors, while sparing platelets, by utilizing proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) that hijack the cellular ubiquitin proteasome system for target ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. In our previous study, the first-in-class BCL-xL PROTAC, called DT2216, was shown to have synergistic antitumor activities when combined with venetoclax (formerly ABT199, BCL-2-selective inhibitor) in a BCL-xL/2 co-dependent SCLC cell line, NCI-H146 (hereafter referred to as H146), in vitro and in a xenograft model. Guided by these findings, we evaluated our newly developed BCL-xL/2 dual degrader, called 753b, in three BCL-xL/2 co-dependent SCLC cell lines and the H146 xenograft models. 753b was found to degrade both BCL-xL and BCL-2 in these cell lines. Importantly, it was considerably more potent than DT2216, navitoclax, or DT2216 + venetoclax in reducing the viability of BCL-xL/2 co-dependent SCLC cell lines in cell culture. In vivo, 5 mg/kg weekly dosing of 753b was found to lead to significant tumor growth delay, similar to the DT2216 + venetoclax combination in H146 xenografts, by degrading both BCL-xL and BCL-2. Additionally, 753b administration at 5 mg/kg every four days induced tumor regressions. At this dosage, 753b was well tolerated in mice, without observable induction of severe thrombocytopenia as seen with navitoclax, and no evidence of significant changes in mouse body weights. These results suggest that the BCL-xL/2 dual degrader could be an effective and safe therapeutic for a subset of SCLC patients, warranting clinical trials in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajid Khan
- Department of Biochemistry & Structural Biology, Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Lin Cao
- Department of Biochemistry & Structural Biology, Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Janet Wiegand
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Peiyi Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Maria Zajac-Kaye
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Frederic J. Kaye
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Guangrong Zheng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Daohong Zhou
- Department of Biochemistry & Structural Biology, Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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3
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Singh S, Srivastava P. Targeted Protein Degraders- The Druggability Perspective. J Pharm Sci 2024; 113:539-554. [PMID: 37926234 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2023.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Targeted Protein degraders (TPDs) show promise in harnessing cellular machinery to eliminate disease-causing proteins, even those previously considered undruggable. Especially if protein turnover is low, targeted protein removal bestows lasting therapeutic effect over typical inhibition. The demonstrated safety and efficacy profile of clinical candidates has fueled the surge in the number of potential candidates across different therapeutic areas. As TPDs often do not comply with Lipinski's rule of five, developing novel TPDs and unlocking their full potential requires overcoming solubility, permeability and oral bioavailability challenges. Tailored in-vitro assays are key to precise profiling and optimization, propelling breakthroughs in targeted protein degradation.
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4
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Khan S, Cao L, Wiegand J, Zhang P, Zajac-Kaye M, Kaye FJ, Zheng G, Zhou D. PROTAC-mediated dual degradation of BCL-xL and BCL-2 is a highly effective therapeutic strategy in small-cell lung cancer. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.27.582353. [PMID: 38464204 PMCID: PMC10925307 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.27.582353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
BCL-xL and BCL-2 are validated therapeutic targets in small-cell lung cancer (SCLC). Targeting these proteins with navitoclax (formerly ABT263, a dual BCL-xL/2 inhibitor) induces dose-limiting thrombocytopenia through on-target BCL-xL inhibition in platelets. Therefore, platelet toxicity poses a barrier in advancing the clinical translation of navitoclax. We have developed a strategy to selectively target BCL-xL in tumors, while sparing platelets, by utilizing proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) that hijack the cellular ubiquitin proteasome system for target ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. In our previous study, the first-in-class BCL-xL PROTAC, called DT2216, was shown to have synergistic antitumor activities when combined with venetoclax (formerly ABT199, BCL-2-selective inhibitor) in a BCL-xL/2 co-dependent SCLC cell line, NCI-H146 (hereafter referred to as H146), in vitro and in a xenograft model. Guided by these findings, we evaluated our newly developed BCL-xL/2 dual degrader, called 753b, in three BCL-xL/2 co-dependent SCLC cell lines and the H146 xenograft models. 753b was found to degrade both BCL-xL and BCL-2 in these cell lines. Importantly, it was considerably more potent than DT2216, navitoclax, or DT2216+venetoclax to reduce the viability of BCL-xL/2 co-dependent SCLC cell lines in cell culture. In vivo, 5 mg/kg weekly dosing of 753b leads to significant tumor growth delay similar to the DT2216+venetoclax combination in H146 xenografts by degrading both BCL-xL and BCL-2. Additionally, 753b administration at 5 mg/kg every four days induced tumor regressions. 753b at this dosage was well tolerated in mice without induction of severe thrombocytopenia as seen with navitoclax nor induced significant changes in mouse body weights. These results suggest that the BCL-xL/2 dual degrader could be an effective and safe therapeutic for a subset of SCLC patients warranting clinical trials in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajid Khan
- Department of Biochemistry & Structural Biology, Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Lin Cao
- Department of Biochemistry & Structural Biology, Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Janet Wiegand
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Peiyi Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Maria Zajac-Kaye
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Frederic J. Kaye
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Guangrong Zheng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Daohong Zhou
- Department of Biochemistry & Structural Biology, Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
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Ruan D, Wu H, Meng Q, Xu R. Development of antibody-drug conjugates in cancer: Overview and prospects. Cancer Commun (Lond) 2024; 44:3-22. [PMID: 38159059 PMCID: PMC10794012 DOI: 10.1002/cac2.12517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, remarkable breakthroughs have been reported on antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), with 15 ADCs successfully entering the market over the past decade. This substantial development has positioned ADCs as one of the fastest-growing domains in the realm of anticancer drugs, demonstrating their efficacy in treating a wide array of malignancies. Nonetheless, there is still an unmet clinical need for wider application, better efficacy, and fewer side effects of ADCs. An ADC generally comprises an antibody, a linker and a payload, and the combination has profound effects on drug structure, pharmacokinetic profile and efficacy. Hence, optimization of the key components provides an opportunity to develop ADCs with higher potency and fewer side effects. In this review, we comprehensively reviewed the current development and the prospects of ADC, provided an analysis of marketed ADCs and the ongoing pipelines globally as well as in China, highlighted several ADC platforms and technologies specific to different pharmaceutical enterprises and biotech companies, and also discussed the new related technologies, possibility of next-generation ADCs and the directions of clinical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan‐Yun Ruan
- Department of Clinical ResearchSun Yat‐sen University Cancer CenterState Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for CancerSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP. R. China
- Research Unit of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment for Gastrointestinal CancerChinese Academy of Medical SciencesGuangzhouGuangdongP. R. China
| | - Hao‐Xiang Wu
- Department of Clinical ResearchSun Yat‐sen University Cancer CenterState Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for CancerSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP. R. China
- Research Unit of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment for Gastrointestinal CancerChinese Academy of Medical SciencesGuangzhouGuangdongP. R. China
| | - Qi Meng
- Department of Clinical ResearchSun Yat‐sen University Cancer CenterState Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for CancerSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP. R. China
- Research Unit of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment for Gastrointestinal CancerChinese Academy of Medical SciencesGuangzhouGuangdongP. R. China
| | - Rui‐Hua Xu
- Research Unit of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment for Gastrointestinal CancerChinese Academy of Medical SciencesGuangzhouGuangdongP. R. China
- Department of Medical OncologySun Yat‐sen University Cancer CenterState Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for CancerSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP. R. China
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6
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Bodac A, Mayet A, Rana S, Pascual J, Bowler AD, Roh V, Fournier N, Craciun L, Demetter P, Radtke F, Meylan E. Bcl-xL targeting eliminates ageing tumor-promoting neutrophils and inhibits lung tumor growth. EMBO Mol Med 2024; 16:158-184. [PMID: 38177532 PMCID: PMC10897164 DOI: 10.1038/s44321-023-00013-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Elevated peripheral blood and tumor-infiltrating neutrophils are often associated with a poor patient prognosis. However, therapeutic strategies to target these cells are difficult to implement due to the life-threatening risk of neutropenia. In a genetically engineered mouse model of lung adenocarcinoma, tumor-associated neutrophils (TAN) demonstrate tumor-supportive capacities and have a prolonged lifespan compared to circulating neutrophils. Here, we show that tumor cell-derived GM-CSF triggers the expression of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-xL protein and enhances neutrophil survival through JAK/STAT signaling. Targeting Bcl-xL activity with a specific BH3 mimetic, A-1331852, blocked the induced neutrophil survival without impacting their normal lifespan. Specifically, oral administration with A-1331852 decreased TAN survival and abundance, and reduced tumor growth without causing neutropenia. We also show that G-CSF, a drug used to combat neutropenia in patients receiving chemotherapy, increased the proportion of young TANs and augmented the anti-tumor effect resulting from Bcl-xL blockade. Finally, our human tumor data indicate the same role for Bcl-xL on pro-tumoral neutrophil survival. These results altogether provide preclinical evidence for safe neutrophil targeting based on their aberrant intra-tumor longevity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Bodac
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Abdullah Mayet
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Molecular Biology, Université libre de Bruxelles, 6041, Gosselies, Belgium
- Lung Cancer and Immuno-Oncology laboratory, Bordet Cancer Research Laboratories, Institut Jules Bordet, Hôpital Universitaire de Bruxelles, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Bruxelles, Belgium
- ULB Cancer Research Center (U-CRC) and ULB Center for Research in Immunology (U-CRI), 1070, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Sarika Rana
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Molecular Biology, Université libre de Bruxelles, 6041, Gosselies, Belgium
- Lung Cancer and Immuno-Oncology laboratory, Bordet Cancer Research Laboratories, Institut Jules Bordet, Hôpital Universitaire de Bruxelles, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Bruxelles, Belgium
- ULB Cancer Research Center (U-CRC) and ULB Center for Research in Immunology (U-CRI), 1070, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Justine Pascual
- Center for Integrative Genomics, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Amber D Bowler
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vincent Roh
- Translational Data Science - Facility, SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Agora Cancer Research Center, 1005, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nadine Fournier
- Translational Data Science - Facility, SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Agora Cancer Research Center, 1005, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ligia Craciun
- Department of Pathology, Institut Jules Bordet, Hôpital Universitaire de Bruxelles, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Pieter Demetter
- Department of Pathology, Institut Jules Bordet, Hôpital Universitaire de Bruxelles, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Freddy Radtke
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Etienne Meylan
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Molecular Biology, Université libre de Bruxelles, 6041, Gosselies, Belgium.
- Lung Cancer and Immuno-Oncology laboratory, Bordet Cancer Research Laboratories, Institut Jules Bordet, Hôpital Universitaire de Bruxelles, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Bruxelles, Belgium.
- ULB Cancer Research Center (U-CRC) and ULB Center for Research in Immunology (U-CRI), 1070, Bruxelles, Belgium.
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Goel KK, Thapliyal S, Kharb R, Joshi G, Negi A, Kumar B. Imidazoles as Serotonin Receptor Modulators for Treatment of Depression: Structural Insights and Structure-Activity Relationship Studies. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2208. [PMID: 37765177 PMCID: PMC10535231 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Serotoninergic signaling is identified as a crucial player in psychiatric disorders (notably depression), presenting it as a significant therapeutic target for treating such conditions. Inhibitors of serotoninergic signaling (especially selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) or serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRI)) are prominently selected as first-line therapy for the treatment of depression, which benefits via increasing low serotonin levels and norepinephrine by blocking serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake and thereby increasing activity. While developing newer heterocyclic scaffolds to target/modulate the serotonergic systems, imidazole-bearing pharmacophores have emerged. The imidazole-derived pharmacophore already demonstrated unique structural characteristics and an electron-rich environment, ultimately resulting in a diverse range of bioactivities. Therefore, the current manuscript discloses such a specific modification and structural activity relationship (SAR) of attempted derivatization in terms of the serotonergic efficacy of the resultant inhibitor. We also featured a landscape of imidazole-based development, focusing on SAR studies against the serotoninergic system to target depression. This study covers the recent advancements in synthetic methodologies for imidazole derivatives and the development of new molecules having antidepressant activity via modulating serotonergic systems, along with their SAR studies. The focus of the study is to provide structural insights into imidazole-based derivatives as serotonergic system modulators for the treatment of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kapil Kumar Goel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to Be University), Haridwar 249404, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Somesh Thapliyal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, HNB Garhwal University, Chauras Campus, Srinagar Garhwal 246174, Uttarakhand, India (G.J.)
| | - Rajeev Kharb
- Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University, Noida 201313, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Gaurav Joshi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, HNB Garhwal University, Chauras Campus, Srinagar Garhwal 246174, Uttarakhand, India (G.J.)
| | - Arvind Negi
- Department of Bioproduct and Biosystems, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Bhupinder Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, HNB Garhwal University, Chauras Campus, Srinagar Garhwal 246174, Uttarakhand, India (G.J.)
- Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era (Deemed to Be University), Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India
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Liu C, Ding X, Li G, Zhang Y, Shao Y, Liu L, Zhang W, Ma Y, Guan W, Wang L, Xu Z, Chang Y, Zhang Y, Jiang B, Yin Q, Tao R. Targeting Bcl-xL is a potential therapeutic strategy for extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma. iScience 2023; 26:107369. [PMID: 37539026 PMCID: PMC10393801 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma, nasal type (ENKTL) is an aggressive lymphoid malignancy with a poor prognosis and lacks standard treatment. Targeted therapies are urgently needed. Here we systematically investigated the druggable mechanisms through chemogenomic screening and identified that Bcl-xL-specific BH3 mimetics effectively induced ENKTL cell apoptosis. Notably, the specific accumulation of Bcl-xL, but not other Bcl-2 family members, was verified in ENKTL cell lines and patient tissues. Furthermore, Bcl-xL high expression was shown to be closely associated with worse patient survival. The critical role of Bcl-xL in ENKTL cell survival was demonstrated utilizing selective inhibitors, genetic silencing, and a specific degrader. Additionally, the IL2-JAK1/3-STAT5 signaling was implicated in Bcl-xL dysregulation. In vivo, Bcl-xL inhibition reduced tumor burden, increased apoptosis, and prolonged survival in ENKTL cell line xenograft and patient-derived xenograft models. Our study indicates Bcl-xL as a promising therapeutic target for ENKTL, warranting monitoring in ongoing clinical trials by targeting Bcl-xL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanxu Liu
- Department of Lymphoma, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xinyu Ding
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Gaoyang Li
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Youping Zhang
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yubao Shao
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Linyi Liu
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Wenhao Zhang
- Department of Lymphoma, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yujie Ma
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenbin Guan
- Department of Pathology, Xinhua Hospital of Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Lifeng Wang
- Department of Pathology, Xinhua Hospital of Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Zhongli Xu
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - YungTing Chang
- Department of Pharmacy, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Yongqiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Reactor, Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design and School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Biao Jiang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry of Natural Substances, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qianqian Yin
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Rong Tao
- Department of Lymphoma, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China
- Department of Hematology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China
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Fujii T, Matsuda Y. Novel formats of antibody conjugates: recent advances in payload diversity, conjugation, and linker chemistry. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2023; 23:1053-1065. [PMID: 37953519 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2023.2276873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In the field of bioconjugates, the focus on antibody - drug conjugates (ADCs) with novel payloads beyond the traditional categories of potent cytotoxic agents is increasing. These innovative ADCs exhibit various molecular formats, ranging from small-molecule payloads, such as immune agonists and proteolytic agents, to macromolecular payloads, such as oligonucleotides and proteins. AREAS COVERED This review offers an in-depth exploration of unconventional strategies for designing conjugates with novel mechanisms of action and notable examples of approaches that show promising prospects. Representative examples of novel format payloads and their classification, attributes, and appropriate conjugation techniques are discussed in detail. EXPERT OPINION The existing basic technologies used to manufacture ADCs can be directly applied to synthesize novel formatted conjugates. However, a wide variety of new payloads require the creation of customized technologies adapted to the unique characteristics of these payloads. Consequently, fundamental technologies, such as conjugation methods aimed at achieving high drug - antibody ratios and developing stable crosslinkers, are likely to become increasingly important research areas in the future.
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Minz R, Sharma PK, Negi A, Kesari KK. MicroRNAs-Based Theranostics against Anesthetic-Induced Neurotoxicity. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1833. [PMID: 37514018 PMCID: PMC10385075 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15071833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Various clinical reports indicate prolonged exposure to general anesthetic-induced neurotoxicity (in vitro and in vivo). Behavior changes (memory and cognition) are compilations commonly cited with general anesthetics. The ability of miRNAs to modulate gene expression, thereby selectively altering cellular functions, remains one of the emerging techniques in the recent decade. Importantly, engineered miRNAs (which are of the two categories, i.e., agomir and antagomir) to an extent found to mitigate neurotoxicity. Utilizing pre-designed synthetic miRNA oligos would be an ideal analeptic approach for intervention based on indicative parameters. This review demonstrates engineered miRNA's potential as prophylactics and/or therapeutics minimizing the general anesthetics-induced neurotoxicity. Furthermore, we share our thoughts regarding the current challenges and feasibility of using miRNAs as therapeutic agents to counteract the adverse neurological effects. Moreover, we discuss the scientific status and updates on the novel neuro-miRNAs related to therapy against neurotoxicity induced by amyloid beta (Aβ) and Parkinson's disease (PD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Roseleena Minz
- Department of Life Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Brambe, Ranchi 853205, Jharkhand, India
| | - Praveen Kumar Sharma
- Department of Life Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Brambe, Ranchi 853205, Jharkhand, India
| | - Arvind Negi
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Kavindra Kumar Kesari
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
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Wei Y, Zhang L, Wang C, Li Z, Luo M, Xie G, Yang X, Li M, Ren S, Zhao D, Gao R, Gong J. Anti-apoptotic protein BCL-XL as a therapeutic vulnerability in gastric cancer. Animal Model Exp Med 2023; 6:245-254. [PMID: 37271936 PMCID: PMC10272913 DOI: 10.1002/ame2.12330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND New therapeutic targets are needed to improve the outcomes for gastric cancer (GC) patients with advanced disease. Evasion of programmed cell death (apoptosis) is a hallmark of cancer cells and direct induction of apoptosis by targeting the pro-survival BCL2 family proteins represents a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning cancer cell survival could provide a molecular basis for potential therapeutic interventions. METHOD Here we explored the role of BCL2L1 and the encoded anti-apoptotic BCL-XL in GC. Using Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR) technology to investigate the DNA amplification of BCL2L1 in GC samples and GC cell lines, the sensitivity of GC cell lines to selective BCL-XL inhibitors A1155463 and A1331852, pan-inhibitor ABT-263, and VHL-based PROTAC-BCL-XL was analyzed using (CellTiter-Glo) CTG assay in vitro. Western Blot (WB) was used to detect the protein expression of BCL2 family members in GC cell lines and the manner in which PROTAC-BCL-XL kills GC cells. Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) was used to investigate the mechanism of A1331852 and ABT-263 kills GC cell lines. DDPCR, WB, and real-time PCR (RTPCR) were used to investigate the correlation between DNA, RNA, protein levels, and drug activity. RESULTS The functional assay showed that a subset of GC cell lines relies on BCL-XL for survival. In gastric cancer cell lines, BCL-XL inhibitors A1155463 and A1331852 are more sensitive than the pan BCL2 family inhibitor ABT-263, indicating that ABT-263 is not an optimal inhibitor of BCL-XL. VHL-based PROTAC-BCL-XL DT2216 appears to be active in GC cells. DT2216 induces apoptosis of gastric cancer cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner through the proteasome pathway. Statistical analysis showed that the BCL-XL protein level predicts the response of GC cells to BCL-XL targeting therapy and BCL2L1 gene CNVs do not reliably predict BCL-XL expression. CONCLUSION We identified BCL-XL as a promising therapeutic target in a subset of GC cases with high levels of BCL-XL protein expression. Functionally, we demonstrated that both selective BCL-XL inhibitors and VHL-based PROTAC BCL-XL can potently kill GC cells that are reliant on BCL-XL for survival. However, we found that BCL2L1 copy number variations (CNVs) cannot reliably predict BCL-XL expression, but the BCL-XL protein level serves as a useful biomarker for predicting the sensitivity of GC cells to BCL-XL-targeting compounds. Taken together, our study pinpointed BCL-XL as potential druggable target for specific subsets of GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumin Wei
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Liping Zhang
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Chao Wang
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Zefeng Li
- Department of Pancreatic and Gastric Surgical Oncology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer HospitalChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| | - Mingjie Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic CenterSun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Guomin Xie
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Xingjiu Yang
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Mengyuan Li
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Shuyue Ren
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Dongbing Zhao
- Department of Pancreatic and Gastric Surgical Oncology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer HospitalChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| | - Ran Gao
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Jia‐Nan Gong
- National Human Diseases Animal Model Resource Center, The Institute of Laboratory Animal ScienceChinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
- NHC Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical DiseasesBeijingChina
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12
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Li S, Chen T, Liu J, Zhang H, Li J, Wang Z, Shang G. PROTACs: Novel tools for improving immunotherapy in cancer. Cancer Lett 2023; 560:216128. [PMID: 36933781 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Posttranslational modifications (PTMs), such as phosphorylation, methylation, ubiquitination, and acetylation, are important in governing protein expression levels. Proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) are novel structures designed to target a protein of interest (POI) for ubiquitination and degradation, leading to the selective reduction in the expression levels of the POI. PROTACs have exhibited great promise due to their ability to target undruggable proteins, including several transcription factors. Recently, PROTACs have been characterized to improve anticancer immunotherapy via the regulation of specific proteins. In this review, we describe how the PROTACs target several molecules, including HDAC6, IDO1, EGFR, FoxM1, PD-L1, SHP2, HPK1, BCL-xL, BET proteins, NAMPT, and COX-1/2, to regulate immunotherapy in human cancers. PROTACs may provide potential treatment benefits by enhancing immunotherapy in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shizhe Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110004, China.
| | - Ting Chen
- Department of Orthopedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110004, China.
| | - Jinxin Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110004, China.
| | - He Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110004, China.
| | - Jiatong Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110004, China.
| | - Zhiwei Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Anhui, 233030, China; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China.
| | - Guanning Shang
- Department of Orthopedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110004, China.
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13
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Chen Q, Liu C, Wang W, Meng X, Cheng X, Li X, Cai L, Luo L, He X, Qu H, Luo J, Wei H, Gao S, Liu G, Wan J, Israel DI, Li J, Dou D. Optimization of PROTAC Ternary Complex Using DNA Encoded Library Approach. ACS Chem Biol 2023; 18:25-33. [PMID: 36606710 PMCID: PMC9872815 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.2c00797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) strategy results in the down-regulation of unwanted protein(s) for disease treatment. In the PROTAC process, a heterobifunctional degrader forms a ternary complex with a target protein of interest (POI) and an E3 ligase, which results in ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of the POI. While ternary complex formation is a key attribute of PROTAC degraders, modification of the PROTAC molecule to optimize ternary complex formation and protein degradation can be a labor-intensive and tedious process. In this study, we take advantage of DNA-encoded library (DEL) technology to efficiently synthesize a vast number of possible PROTAC molecules and describe a parallel screening approach that utilizes DNA barcodes as reporters of ternary complex formation and cooperative binding. We use a designed PROTAC DEL against BRD4 and CRBN to describe a dual protein affinity selection method and the direct discovery of novel, potent BRD4 PROTACs that importantly demonstrate clear SAR. Such an approach evaluates all the potential PROTACs simultaneously, avoids the interference of PROTAC solubility and permeability, and uses POI and E3 ligase proteins in an efficient manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuxia Chen
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Chuan Liu
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Xiaoyun Meng
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Xuemin Cheng
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Xianyang Li
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Longying Cai
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Linfu Luo
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Xu He
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Huan Qu
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Jing Luo
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Hong Wei
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Sen Gao
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Guansai Liu
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Jinqiao Wan
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | | | - Jin Li
- HitGen
Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
| | - Dengfeng Dou
- Lead
Generation Unit and Discovery Chemistry Unit, HitGen Inc., Chengdu, Sichuan 610200, China
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14
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Gupta SM, Behera A, Jain NK, Kumar D, Tripathi A, Tripathi SM, Mujwar S, Patra J, Negi A. Indene-Derived Hydrazides Targeting Acetylcholinesterase Enzyme in Alzheimer's: Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation. Pharmaceutics 2022; 15:pharmaceutics15010094. [PMID: 36678724 PMCID: PMC9860787 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
As acetylcholinesterase (AChE) plays a crucial role in advancing Alzheimer's disease (AD), its inhibition is a promising approach for treating AD. Sulindac is an NSAID of the aryl alkanoic acid class, consisting of a indene moiety, which showed neuroprotective behavior in recent studies. In this study, newer Indene analogs were synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro AChE inhibition. Additionally, compared with donepezil as the standard drug, these Indene analogs were accessed for their cell line-based toxicity study on SH-SY5Y cell line. The molecule SD-30, having hydrogen bond donor (HBD) at para-position, showed maximum AChE inhibition potential (IC50 13.86 ± 0.163 µM) in the indene series. Further, the SD-30 showed maximum BuChE inhibition potential (IC50 = 48.55 ± 0.136 µM) with a selectivity ratio of 3.50 and reasonable antioxidant properties compared to ascorbic acid (using DPPH assay). SD-30 (at a dose level: of 10 µM, 20 µM) effectively inhibited AChE-induced Aβ aggregation and showed no significant toxicity up to 30 mM against SH-SY5Y cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shraddha Manish Gupta
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Oriental University, Indore 453555, India
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences and Technology, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies (UPES), Dehradun 248007, India
| | - Ashok Behera
- Faculty of Pharmacy, DIT University, Dehradun 248009, India
| | - Neetesh K. Jain
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Oriental University, Indore 453555, India
| | - Devendra Kumar
- Faculty of Pharmacy, DIT University, Dehradun 248009, India
| | - Avanish Tripathi
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura 281406, India
| | - Shailesh Mani Tripathi
- School of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer 305817, India
| | - Somdutt Mujwar
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura 140401, India
| | - Jeevan Patra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences and Technology, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies (UPES), Dehradun 248007, India
| | - Arvind Negi
- Faculty of Pharmacy, DIT University, Dehradun 248009, India
- Department of Bioproduct and Biosystems, Aalto University, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
- Correspondence: or
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15
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Koroleva OA, Dutikova YV, Trubnikov AV, Zenov FA, Manasova EV, Shtil AA, Kurkin AV. PROTAC: targeted drug strategy. Principles and limitations. Russ Chem Bull 2022; 71:2310-2334. [PMID: 36569659 PMCID: PMC9762658 DOI: 10.1007/s11172-022-3659-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The PROTAC (PROteolysis TArgeting Chimera) technology is a method of targeting intracellular proteins previously considered undruggable. This technology utilizes the ubiquitin-proteasome system in cells to specifically degrade target proteins, thereby offering significant advantages over conventional small-molecule inhibitors of the enzymatic function. Preclinical and preliminary clinical trials of PROTAC-based compounds (degraders) are presented. The review considers the general principles of the design of degraders. Advances and challenges of the PROTAC technology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. A. Koroleva
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Build. 3, 1 Leninskie Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Yu. V. Dutikova
- Patent & Law Firm “A. Zalesov and Partners”, Build. 9, 2 ul. Marshala Rybalko, 123060 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - A. V. Trubnikov
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Build. 3, 1 Leninskie Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - F. A. Zenov
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Build. 3, 1 Leninskie Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - E. V. Manasova
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Build. 3, 1 Leninskie Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - A. A. Shtil
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Build. 3, 1 Leninskie Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
- N. N. Blokhin National Medical Research Center of Oncology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Build. 15, 24 Kashirskoe shosse, 115478 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - A. V. Kurkin
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Build. 3, 1 Leninskie Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
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16
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Dhakal P, Bates M, Tomasson MH, Sutamtewagul G, Dupuy A, Bhatt VR. Acute myeloid leukemia resistant to venetoclax-based therapy: What does the future hold? Blood Rev 2022; 59:101036. [PMID: 36549969 DOI: 10.1016/j.blre.2022.101036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Venetoclax is a highly selective B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) inhibitor, which, combined with a DNA hypomethylating agent or low dose cytarabine, results in high rates of initial responses in patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML). However, the disease relapses in most patients. Mechanisms of resistance to venetoclax-based therapy include TP53 gene mutations or inactivation of p53 protein, activating kinase mutations such as FLT3 and RAS, and upregulation of other BCL-2 family apoptotic proteins. Current clinical trials are exploring strategies such as doublet or triplet regimens incorporating a p53 activator, an anti-CD47 antibody, or other novel agents that target genes and proteins responsible for resistance to venetoclax. Further studies should focus on identifying predictive biomarkers of response to venetoclax-based therapy and incorporating immunotherapeutic approaches such as checkpoint inhibitors, bispecific antibodies, antibody-drug conjugates, and CAR T-cell therapy to improve outcomes for patients with AML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prajwal Dhakal
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Blood & Marrow Transplantation, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Dr. C 21GH, Iowa City, IA 52245, United States of America.
| | - Melissa Bates
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Blood & Marrow Transplantation, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Dr. C 21GH, Iowa City, IA 52245, United States of America.
| | - Michael H Tomasson
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Blood & Marrow Transplantation, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Dr. C 21GH, Iowa City, IA 52245, United States of America.
| | - Grerk Sutamtewagul
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Blood & Marrow Transplantation, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Dr. C 21GH, Iowa City, IA 52245, United States of America.
| | - Adam Dupuy
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, University of Iowa, 375 Newton Road, 3202 MERF, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States of America.
| | - Vijaya Raj Bhatt
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Oncology and Hematology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, United States of America; Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986840 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, United States of America.
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17
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Negi A, Kesari KK, Voisin-Chiret AS. Estrogen Receptor-α Targeting: PROTACs, SNIPERs, Peptide-PROTACs, Antibody Conjugated PROTACs and SNIPERs. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14112523. [PMID: 36432713 PMCID: PMC9699327 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14112523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeting selective estrogen subtype receptors through typical medicinal chemistry approaches is based on occupancy-driven pharmacology. In occupancy-driven pharmacology, molecules are developed in order to inhibit the protein of interest (POI), and their popularity is based on their virtue of faster kinetics. However, such approaches have intrinsic flaws, such as pico-to-nanomolar range binding affinity and continuous dosage after a time interval for sustained inhibition of POI. These shortcomings were addressed by event-driven pharmacology-based approaches, which degrade the POI rather than inhibit it. One such example is PROTACs (Proteolysis targeting chimeras), which has become one of the highly successful strategies of event-driven pharmacology (pharmacology that does the degradation of POI and diminishes its functions). The selective targeting of estrogen receptor subtypes is always challenging for chemical biologists and medicinal chemists. Specifically, estrogen receptor α (ER-α) is expressed in nearly 70% of breast cancer and commonly overexpressed in ovarian, prostate, colon, and endometrial cancer. Therefore, conventional hormonal therapies are most prescribed to patients with ER + cancers. However, on prolonged use, resistance commonly developed against these therapies, which led to selective estrogen receptor degrader (SERD) becoming the first-line drug for metastatic ER + breast cancer. The SERD success shows that removing cellular ER-α is a promising approach to overcoming endocrine resistance. Depending on the mechanism of degradation of ER-α, various types of strategies of developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Negi
- Department of Bioproduct and Biosystems, Aalto University, 00076 Espoo, Finland
- Correspondence: or (A.N.); or (K.K.K.); (A.S.V.-C.)
| | - Kavindra Kumar Kesari
- Department of Bioproduct and Biosystems, Aalto University, 00076 Espoo, Finland
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
- Correspondence: or (A.N.); or (K.K.K.); (A.S.V.-C.)
| | - Anne Sophie Voisin-Chiret
- CERMN (Centre d’Etudes et de Recherche sur le Médicament de Normandie), Normandie University UNICAEN, 14000 Caen, France
- Correspondence: or (A.N.); or (K.K.K.); (A.S.V.-C.)
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18
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Natural Products as Mcl-1 Inhibitors: A Comparative Study of Experimental and Computational Modelling Data. CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/chemistry4030067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The human myeloid leukemia cell differentiation protein (hMcl-1) is an anti-apoptotic multi-partner protein, belonging to the B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) family of proteins. Studies have linked hMcl-1 alleviated expression with resistance to hemopoietic chemotherapeutics, which makes it a key drug target in blood cancers. However, most of the developed small- to medium-sized hMcl-1 inhibitors have typical off-target activity towards other members of the Bcl-2 family. To improve the hMcl-1 inhibitor design, especially exploring a suitable scaffold with pharmacophoric features, we focused on natural hMcl-1 inhibitors. To date, seven classes of natural compounds have been isolated, which display a low micromolar affinity for hMcl-1 and have limited biophysical studies. We screened hMcl-1 co-crystal structures, and identified nine co-crystal structures of hMcl-1 protein, which were later evaluated by multiple receptor conformations (which indicates that the differences between hMcl-1 in crystal structures are low (RMSD values between 0.52 and 1.13 Å, average RMSD of 0.638–0.888 Å, with a standard deviation of 0.102–0.185Å)), and multiple ligand conformations (which led to the selection of the PDB structure, 3WIX (RMSD value = 0.879 Å, standard deviation 0.116 Å), to accommodate various Mcl-1 ligands from a range of co-crystal PDB files) methods. Later, the three adopted docking methods were assessed for their ability to reproduce the conformation bound to the crystal as well as predict trends in Ki values based on calculated RMSD and docking energies. Iterative docking and clustering of the docked pose within ≤1.0 Å was used to evaluate the reproducibility of the adopted docking methods and compared with their experimentally determined hMcl-1 affinity data.
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19
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L'Hôte V, Mann C, Thuret JY. From the divergence of senescent cell fates to mechanisms and selectivity of senolytic drugs. Open Biol 2022; 12:220171. [PMID: 36128715 PMCID: PMC9490338 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.220171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Senescence is a cellular stress response that involves prolonged cell survival, a quasi-irreversible proliferative arrest and a modification of the transcriptome that sometimes includes inflammatory gene expression. Senescent cells are resistant to apoptosis, and if not eliminated by the immune system they may accumulate and lead to chronic inflammation and tissue dysfunction. Senolytics are drugs that selectively induce cell death in senescent cells, but not in proliferative or quiescent cells, and they have proved a viable therapeutic approach in multiple mouse models of pathologies in which senescence is implicated. As the catalogue of senolytic compounds is expanding, novel survival strategies of senescent cells are uncovered, and variations in sensitivity to senolysis between different types of senescent cells emerge. We propose herein a mechanistic classification of senolytic drugs, based on the level at which they target senescent cells: directly disrupting BH3 protein networks that are reorganized upon senescence induction; downregulating survival-associated pathways essential to senescent cells; or modulating homeostatic processes whose regulation is challenged in senescence. With this approach, we highlight the important diversity of senescent cells in terms of physiology and pathways of apoptosis suppression, and we describe possible avenues for the development of more selective senolytics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin L'Hôte
- CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Carl Mann
- CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Jean-Yves Thuret
- CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
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20
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Negi A, Kesari KK. Chitosan Nanoparticle Encapsulation of Antibacterial Essential Oils. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:mi13081265. [PMID: 36014186 PMCID: PMC9415589 DOI: 10.3390/mi13081265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Chitosan is the most suitable encapsulation polymer because of its natural abundance, biodegradability, and surface functional groups in the form of free NH2 groups. The presence of NH2 groups allows for the facile grafting of functionalized molecules onto the chitosan surface, resulting in multifunctional materialistic applications. Quaternization of chitosan's free amino is one of the typical chemical modifications commonly achieved under acidic conditions. This quaternization improves its ionic character, making it ready for ionic-ionic surface modification. Although the cationic nature of chitosan alone exhibits antibacterial activity because of its interaction with negatively-charged bacterial membranes, the nanoscale size of chitosan further amplifies its antibiofilm activity. Additionally, the researcher used chitosan nanoparticles as polymeric materials to encapsulate antibiofilm agents (such as antibiotics and natural phytochemicals), serving as an excellent strategy to combat biofilm-based secondary infections. This paper provided a summary of available carbohydrate-based biopolymers as antibiofilm materials. Furthermore, the paper focuses on chitosan nanoparticle-based encapsulation of basil essential oil (Ocimum basilicum), mandarin essential oil (Citrus reticulata), Carum copticum essential oil ("Ajwain"), dill plant seed essential oil (Anethum graveolens), peppermint oil (Mentha piperita), green tea oil (Camellia sinensis), cardamom essential oil, clove essential oil (Eugenia caryophyllata), cumin seed essential oil (Cuminum cyminum), lemongrass essential oil (Cymbopogon commutatus), summer savory essential oil (Satureja hortensis), thyme essential oil, cinnamomum essential oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and nettle essential oil (Urtica dioica). Additionally, chitosan nanoparticles are used for the encapsulation of the major essential components carvacrol and cinnamaldehyde, the encapsulation of an oil-in-water nanoemulsion of eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus globulus), the encapsulation of a mandarin essential oil nanoemulsion, and the electrospinning nanofiber of collagen hydrolysate-chitosan with lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) and dill (Anethum graveolens) essential oil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Negi
- Department of Bioproduct and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
- Correspondence: or (A.N.); or (K.K.K.)
| | - Kavindra Kumar Kesari
- Department of Bioproduct and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
- Correspondence: or (A.N.); or (K.K.K.)
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21
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Uthale A, Anantram A, Sulkshane P, Degani M, Teni T. Identification of bicyclic compounds that act as dual inhibitors of Bcl-2 and Mcl-1. Mol Divers 2022:10.1007/s11030-022-10494-6. [PMID: 35909144 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-022-10494-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Elevated expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, such as Bcl-2 and Mcl-1 contributes to poor prognosis and resistance to current treatment modalities in multiple cancers. Here, we report the design, synthesis and characterization of benzimidazole chalcone and flavonoid scaffold-derived bicyclic compounds targeting both Bcl-2 and Mcl-1 by optimizing the structural differences in the binding sites of both these proteins. Initial docking screen of Bcl-2 and Mcl-1 with pro-apoptotic protein Bim revealed possible hits with optimal binding energies. All the optimized bicyclic compounds were screened for their in vitro cytotoxic activity against two oral cancer cell lines (AW8507 and AW13516) which express high levels of Bcl-2 and Mcl-1. Compound 4d from the benzimidazole chalcone series and compound 6d from the flavonoid series exhibited significant cytotoxic activity (IC50 7.12 μM and 17.18 μM, respectively) against AW13516 cell line. Time Resolved-Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (TR-FRET) analysis further demonstrated that compound 4d and compound 6d could effectively inhibit the Bcl-2 and Mcl-1 proteins by displacing their BH3 binding partners. Both compounds exhibited potent activation of canonical pathway of apoptosis evident from appearance of cleaved Caspase-3 and PARP. Further, treatment of oral cancer cells with the inhibitors induced dissociation of the BH3 only protein Bim from Mcl-1 and Bak from Bcl-2 but failed to release Bax from Bcl-xL thereby confirming the nature of compounds as BH3-mimetics selectively targeting Bcl-2 and Mcl-1. Our study thus identifies bicyclic compounds as promising candidates for anti-apoptotic Bcl-2/Mcl-1 dual inhibitors with a potential for further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhay Uthale
- Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research & Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, 410 210, India.,Homi Bhabha National Institute, Training School Complex, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai, 400085, India
| | - Aarti Anantram
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, 400 019, India
| | - Prasad Sulkshane
- Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research & Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, 410 210, India.,Homi Bhabha National Institute, Training School Complex, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai, 400085, India
| | - Mariam Degani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, 400 019, India.
| | - Tanuja Teni
- Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research & Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, 410 210, India. .,Homi Bhabha National Institute, Training School Complex, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai, 400085, India.
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22
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No time to die? Intrinsic apoptosis signaling in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells and therapeutic implications. Curr Opin Hematol 2022; 29:181-187. [PMID: 35787546 DOI: 10.1097/moh.0000000000000717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Dysregulated apoptosis contributes to the pathogenesis of many hematologic malignancies. BH3-mimetics, antagonists of antiapoptotic BCL-2 proteins, represent novel, and promising cancer drugs. While the acute myelosuppressive effects of Venetoclax, the first Food and Drug Administration approved BCL-2 inhibitor, are fairly well described, little is known about side effects of novel BH3-mimetics and effects of chronic Venetoclax treatment. RECENT FINDINGS Highly relevant publications focused on the effects of acute and chronic Venetoclax therapy, with focus on cell-type specific adaptive mechanisms, the emergence of clonal hematopoiesis, and the selection of BAX-mutated hematopoietic cells in patients treated with Venetoclax for a long period. Important advances were made in understanding primary and secondary Venetoclax resistance and prediction of Venetoclax response. Combination therapies of BH3-mimetics targeting different BCL-2 proteins are highly anticipated. However, human stem and progenitors require both MCL-1 and BCL-XL for survival, and serious myelosuppressive effects of combined MCL-1/BCL-XL inhibition can be expected. SUMMARY Long-term studies are indispensable to profile the chronic side effects of Venetoclax and novel BH3-mimetics and better balance their risk vs. benefit in cancer therapy. Combination therapies will be powerful, but potentially limited by severe myelosuppression. For precision medicine, a better knowledge of BCL-2 proteins in the healthy and diseased hematopoietic system is required.
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23
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Tipping the balance: toward rational combination therapies to overcome venetoclax resistance in mantle cell lymphoma. Leukemia 2022; 36:2165-2176. [PMID: 35725771 PMCID: PMC9418002 DOI: 10.1038/s41375-022-01627-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), an aggressive, but incurable B-cell lymphoma, is genetically characterized by the t(11;14) translocation, resulting in the overexpression of Cyclin D1. In addition, deregulation of the B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) family proteins BCL-2, B-cell lymphoma-extra large (BCL-XL), and myeloid cell leukemia-1 (MCL-1) is highly common in MCL. This renders these BCL-2 family members attractive targets for therapy; indeed, the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax (ABT-199), which already received FDA approval for the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML), shows promising results in early clinical trials for MCL. However, a significant subset of patients show primary resistance or will develop resistance upon prolonged treatment. Here, we describe the underlying mechanisms of venetoclax resistance in MCL, such as upregulation of BCL-XL or MCL-1, and the recent (clinical) progress in the development of inhibitors for these BCL-2 family members, followed by the transcriptional and (post-)translational (dys)regulation of the BCL-2 family proteins, including the role of the lymphoid organ microenvironment. Based upon these insights, we discuss how rational combinations of venetoclax with other therapies can be exploited to prevent or overcome venetoclax resistance and improve MCL patient outcome.
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Pedrucci F, Pappalardo C, Marzaro G, Ferri N, Ferlin A, De Toni L. Proteolysis Targeting Chimeric Molecules: Tuning Molecular Strategies for a Clinically Sound Listening. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126630. [PMID: 35743070 PMCID: PMC9223854 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
From seminal evidence in the early 2000s, the opportunity to drive the specific knockdown of a protein of interest (POI) through pharmacological entities called Proteolysis Targeting Chimeric molecules, or PROTACs, has become a possible therapeutic option with the involvement of these compounds in clinical trials for cancers and autoimmune diseases. The fulcrum of PROTACs pharmacodynamics is to favor the juxtaposition between an E3 ligase activity and the POI, followed by the ubiquitination of the latter and its degradation by the proteasome system. In the face of an apparently modular design of these drugs, being constituted by an E3 ligase binding moiety and a POI-binding moiety connected by a linker, the final structure of an efficient PROTAC degradation enhancer often goes beyond the molecular descriptors known to influence the biological activity, specificity, and pharmacokinetics, requiring a rational improvement through appropriate molecular strategies. Starting from the description of the basic principles underlying the activity of the PROTACs to the evaluation of the strategies for the improvement of pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics and rational design, this review examines the molecular elements that have been shown to be effective in allowing the evolution of these compounds from interesting proof of concepts to potential aids of clinical interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Pedrucci
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Andrology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padova, Italy; (F.P.); (C.P.); (A.F.)
| | - Claudia Pappalardo
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Andrology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padova, Italy; (F.P.); (C.P.); (A.F.)
| | - Giovanni Marzaro
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Nicola Ferri
- Department of Medicine, University of Padova, 35128 Padova, Italy;
| | - Alberto Ferlin
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Andrology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padova, Italy; (F.P.); (C.P.); (A.F.)
| | - Luca De Toni
- Department of Medicine, Unit of Andrology and Reproductive Medicine, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padova, Italy; (F.P.); (C.P.); (A.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-049-8218519; Fax: +39-049-8218520
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