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Yao L, Tran K, Nguyen D. Collagen Matrices Mediate Glioma Cell Migration Induced by an Electrical Signal. Gels 2022; 8:gels8090545. [PMID: 36135257 PMCID: PMC9498326 DOI: 10.3390/gels8090545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma cells produce an increased amount of collagen compared with normal astrocytes. The increasing amount of collagen in the extracellular matrix (ECM) modulates the matrix structure and the mechanical properties of the microenvironment, thereby regulating tumor cell invasion. Although the regulation of tumor cell invasion mainly relies on cell–ECM interaction, the electrotaxis of tumor cells has attracted great research interest. The growth of glioma cells in a three-dimensional (3D) collagen hydrogel creates a relevant tumor physiological condition for the study of tumor cell invasion. In this study, we tested the migration of human glioma cells, fetal astrocytes, and adult astrocytes in a 3D collagen matrix with different collagen concentrations. We report that all three types of cells demonstrated higher motility in a low concentration of collagen hydrogel (3 mg/mL and 5 mg/mL) than in a high concentration of collagen hydrogel (10 mg/mL). We further show that human glioma cells grown in collagen hydrogels responded to direct current electric field (dcEF) stimulation and migrated to the anodal pole. The tumor cells altered their morphology in the gels to adapt to the anodal migration. The directedness of anodal migration shows a field strength-dependent response. EF stimulation increased the migration speed of tumor cells. This study implicates the potential role of an dcEF in glioma invasion and as a target of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Yao
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +316-978-6766; Fax: +316-978-3772
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2
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Moarefian M, Davalos RV, Burton MD, Jones CN. Electrotaxis-on-Chip to Quantify Neutrophil Migration Towards Electrochemical Gradients. Front Immunol 2021; 12:674727. [PMID: 34421891 PMCID: PMC8379007 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.674727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Electric fields are generated in vivo in a variety of physiologic and pathologic settings, including wound healing and immune response to injuries to epithelial barriers (e.g. lung pneumocytes). Immune cells are known to migrate towards both chemical (chemotaxis), physical (mechanotaxis) and electric stimuli (electrotaxis). Electrotaxis is the guided migration of cells along electric fields, and has previously been reported in T-cells and cancer cells. However, there remains a need for engineering tools with high spatial and temporal resolution to quantify EF guided migration. Here we report the development of an electrotaxis-on-chip (ETOC) platform that enables the quantification of dHL-60 cell, a model neutrophil-like cell line, migration toward both electrical and chemoattractant gradients. Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells and set the stage for the magnitude of the immune response. Therefore, developing engineering tools to direct neutrophil migration patterns has applications in both infectious disease and inflammatory disorders. The ETOC developed in this study has embedded electrodes and four migration zones connected to a central cell-loading chamber with migration channels [10 µm X 10 µm]. This device enables both parallel and competing chemoattractant and electric fields. We use our novel ETOC platform to investigate dHL-60 cell migration in three biologically relevant conditions: 1) in a DC electric field; 2) parallel chemical gradient and electric fields; and 3) perpendicular chemical gradient and electric field. In this study we used differentiated leukemia cancer cells (dHL60 cells), an accepted model for human peripheral blood neutrophils. We first quantified effects of electric field intensities (0.4V/cm-1V/cm) on dHL-60 cell electrotaxis. Our results show optimal migration at 0.6 V/cm. In the second scenario, we tested whether it was possible to increase dHL-60 cell migration to a bacterial signal [N-formylated peptides (fMLP)] by adding a parallel electric field. Our results show that there was significant increase (6-fold increase) in dHL60 migration toward fMLP and cathode of DC electric field (0.6V/cm, n=4, p-value<0.005) vs. fMLP alone. Finally, we evaluated whether we could decrease or re-direct dHL-60 cell migration away from an inflammatory signal [leukotriene B4 (LTB4)]. The perpendicular electric field significantly decreased migration (2.9-fold decrease) of dHL60s toward LTB4vs. LTB4 alone. Our microfluidic device enabled us to quantify single-cell electrotaxis velocity (7.9 µm/min ± 3.6). The magnitude and direction of the electric field can be more precisely and quickly changed than most other guidance cues such as chemical cues in clinical investigation. A better understanding of EF guided cell migration will enable the development of new EF-based treatments to precisely direct immune cell migration for wound care, infection, and other inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Moarefian
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Rafael V. Davalos
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Michael D. Burton
- Department of Neuroscience, Neuroimmunology and Behavior Group, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, United States
| | - Caroline N. Jones
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, United States
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3
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Ledvina V, Klepárník K, Legartová S, Bártová E. A device for investigation of natural cell mobility and deformability. Electrophoresis 2020; 41:1238-1244. [PMID: 32358820 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201900357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
A microfluidic device made of polydimethylsiloxane was developed for continuous evaluation of natural migration mobility of many eukaryotic cells in relaxed and deformed state. The device was fabricated by standard photolithography and soft lithography techniques using the SU-8 3010 negative photoresist on a glass wafer as the master mold. The simple flow-free device exploits the chemotactic movement of cells through a set of mechanical barriers in the direction of concentration gradients of attractants. The barriers are formed by arrays of circular cross-section pillars with decreasing spacing 7, 5, and 3 μm. To pass through the obstacles, the cells are deformed and change their cytoskeletal architecture. The instantaneous migration velocities of cells are monitored in a time-lapse setup of the scanning confocal microscope. Thus, the cellular deformability and migratory activity can easily be evaluated. The functionality of the device was tested with model HeLa cells stably transfected with fluorescent Premo FUCCI Cell Cycle Sensor. The designed device has the potential to be implemented for testing the tendency of patients' tumors to metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojtěch Ledvina
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Klepárník
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Soňa Legartová
- Institute of the Biophysics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Bártová
- Institute of the Biophysics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
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4
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Electrotaxis of Glioblastoma and Medulloblastoma Spheroidal Aggregates. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5309. [PMID: 30926929 PMCID: PMC6441013 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-41505-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment of neuroepithelial cancers remains a daunting clinical challenge, particularly due to an inability to address rampant invasion deep into eloquent regions of the brain. Given the lack of access, and the dispersed nature of brain tumor cells, we explore the possibility of electric fields inducing directed tumor cell migration. In this study we investigate the properties of populations of brain cancer undergoing electrotaxis, a phenomenon whereby cells are directed to migrate under control of an electrical field. We investigate two cell lines for glioblastoma and medulloblastoma (U87mg & DAOY, respectively), plated as spheroidal aggregates in Matrigel-filled electrotaxis channels, and report opposing electrotactic responses. To further understand electrotactic migration of tumor cells, we performed RNA-sequencing for pathway discovery to identify signaling that is differentially affected by the exposure of direct-current electrical fields. Further, using selective pharmacological inhibition assays, focused on the PI3K/mTOR/AKT signaling axis, we validate whether there is a causal relationship to electrotaxis and these mechanisms of action. We find that U87 mg electrotaxis is abolished under pharmacological inhibition of PI3Kγ, mTOR, AKT and ErbB2 signaling, whereas DAOY cell electrotaxis was not attenuated by these or other pathways evaluated.
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5
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Batsios P, Ishikawa-Ankerhold HC, Roth H, Schleicher M, Wong CCL, Müller-Taubenberger A. Ate1-mediated posttranslational arginylation affects substrate adhesion and cell migration in Dictyostelium discoideum. Mol Biol Cell 2018; 30:453-466. [PMID: 30586322 PMCID: PMC6594445 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e18-02-0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The highly conserved enzyme arginyl-tRNA-protein transferase (Ate1) mediates arginylation, a posttranslational modification that is only incompletely understood at its molecular level. To investigate whether arginylation affects actin-dependent processes in a simple model organism, Dictyostelium discoideum, we knocked out the gene encoding Ate1 and characterized the phenotype of ate1-null cells. Visualization of actin cytoskeleton dynamics by live-cell microscopy indicated significant changes in comparison to wild-type cells. Ate1-null cells were almost completely lacking focal actin adhesion sites at the substrate-attached surface and were only weakly adhesive. In two-dimensional chemotaxis assays toward folate or cAMP, the motility of ate1-null cells was increased. However, in three-dimensional chemotaxis involving more confined conditions, the motility of ate1-null cells was significantly reduced. Live-cell imaging showed that GFP-tagged Ate1 rapidly relocates to sites of newly formed actin-rich protrusions. By mass spectrometric analysis, we identified four arginylation sites in the most abundant actin isoform of Dictyostelium, in addition to arginylation sites in other actin isoforms and several actin-binding proteins. In vitro polymerization assays with actin purified from ate1-null cells revealed a diminished polymerization capacity in comparison to wild-type actin. Our data indicate that arginylation plays a crucial role in the regulation of cytoskeletal activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petros Batsios
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Hellen C Ishikawa-Ankerhold
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Heike Roth
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Michael Schleicher
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Catherine C L Wong
- National Center for Protein Science Shanghai, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes of Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Annette Müller-Taubenberger
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
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Li Y, Xu T, Zou H, Chen X, Sun D, Yang M. Cell migration microfluidics for electrotaxis-based heterogeneity study of lung cancer cells. Biosens Bioelectron 2016; 89:837-845. [PMID: 27816579 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Tumor metastasis involves the migration of cells from primary site to a distant location. Recently, it was established that cancer cells from the same tumor were heterogeneous in migratory ability. Numerous studies have demonstrated that cancer cells undergo reorientation and migration directionally under physiological electric field (EF), which has potential implications in metastasis. Microfluidic devices with channel structures of defined dimensions provide controllable microenvironments to enable real-time observation of cell migration. In this study, we developed two polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based microfluidic devices for long-term electrotaxis study. In the first chip, three different intensities of EFs were generated in a single channel to study cell electrotactic behavior with high efficiency. We observed that the lung adenocarcinoma H1975 cells underwent cathodal migration with changing cellular orientation. To address the issue of cell electrotactic heterogeneity, we also developed a cell isolation device integrating cell immobilization structure, stable EF generator and cell retrieval module in one microfluidic chip to sort out different cell subpopulations based on electrotactic ability. High electrotactic and low electrotactic cells were harvested separately for colony formation assay and transcriptional analysis of migration-related genes. The results showed that H1975 cell motility was related to EGFR expression in the absence of EF stimulation, while in the presence of EF it was associated with PTEN expression. Up-regulation of RhoA was observed in cells with high motility, regardless of EF. The easy cell manipulation and precise field control of the microfluidic devices may enable further study of tumor heterogeneity in complex electrotactic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaping Li
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Centre, Shenzhen, Research Institutes of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Tao Xu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Liaoning Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning, China
| | - Heng Zou
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Centre, Shenzhen, Research Institutes of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiaomei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Centre, Shenzhen, Research Institutes of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dong Sun
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Mengsu Yang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Centre, Shenzhen, Research Institutes of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China.
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Nath S, Devi GR. Three-dimensional culture systems in cancer research: Focus on tumor spheroid model. Pharmacol Ther 2016; 163:94-108. [PMID: 27063403 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2016.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 529] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells propagated in three-dimensional (3D) culture systems exhibit physiologically relevant cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, gene expression and signaling pathway profiles, heterogeneity and structural complexity that reflect in vivo tumors. In recent years, development of various 3D models has improved the study of host-tumor interaction and use of high-throughput screening platforms for anti-cancer drug discovery and development. This review attempts to summarize the various 3D culture systems, with an emphasis on the most well characterized and widely applied model - multicellular tumor spheroids. This review also highlights the various techniques to generate tumor spheroids, methods to characterize them, and its applicability in cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sritama Nath
- Division of Surgical Sciences, Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, United States
| | - Gayathri R Devi
- Division of Surgical Sciences, Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, United States; Duke Cancer Institute, Women's Cancer Program, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, United States.
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8
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Huang YJ, Hoffmann G, Wheeler B, Schiapparelli P, Quinones-Hinojosa A, Searson P. Cellular microenvironment modulates the galvanotaxis of brain tumor initiating cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21583. [PMID: 26898606 PMCID: PMC4761929 DOI: 10.1038/srep21583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Galvanotaxis is a complex process that represents the collective outcome of various contributing mechanisms, including asymmetric ion influxes, preferential activation of voltage-gated channels, and electrophoretic redistribution of membrane components. While a large number of studies have focused on various up- and downstream signaling pathways, little is known about how the surrounding microenvironment may interact and contribute to the directional response. Using a customized galvanotaxis chip capable of carrying out experiments in both two- and three-dimensional microenvironments, we show that cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions modulate the galvanotaxis of brain tumor initiating cells (BTICs). Five different BTICs across three different glioblastoma subtypes were examined and shown to all migrate toward the anode in the presence of a direct-current electric field (dcEF) when cultured on a poly-L-ornithine/laminin coated surface, while the fetal-derived neural progenitor cells (fNPCs) migrated toward the cathode. Interestingly, when embedded in a 3D ECM composed of hyaluronic acid and collagen, BTICs exhibited opposite directional response and migrated toward the cathode. Pharmacological inhibition against a panel of key molecules involved in galvanotaxis further revealed the mechanistic differences between 2- and 3D galvanotaxis in BTICs. Both myosin II and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) were found to hold strikingly different roles in different microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ja Huang
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gwendolyn Hoffmann
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Benjamin Wheeler
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Paula Schiapparelli
- Department of Neurosurgery and Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Alfredo Quinones-Hinojosa
- Department of Neurosurgery and Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Peter Searson
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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Roth H, Samereier M, Trommler G, Noegel AA, Schleicher M, Müller-Taubenberger A. Balanced cortical stiffness is important for efficient migration of Dictyostelium cells in confined environments. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 467:730-5. [PMID: 26482849 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.10.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Dictyostelium discoideum cells resemble in many aspects human leukocytes and serve as a model to study actin cytoskeleton dynamics and cell migration of highly motile cells. Dictyostelium cells deficient in the actin-binding protein filamin (ddFLN) showed a surprisingly subtle change in phenotype with no or only minor effects in single cell motility. These findings were in contrast to the strong actin-crosslinking activities measured for filamin in vitro. In the present study, we set out to revisit the role of ddFLN in cell migration. For this purpose, we examined migration of wild-type, ddFLN-null and ddFLN-overexpressing cells under different conditions. In addition to cyclic-AMP chemotaxis assays using micropipettes, we explored cell migration under more confined conditions: an under-agarose 2D assay and a 3D assay employing a collagen matrix that was adapted from assays for leukocytes. Using 3D migration conditions, cells deficient in ddFLN displayed only a minor impairment of motility, similar to the results obtained for migration in 2D. However, cells overexpressing ddFLN showed a remarkable decrease in the speed of migration in particular in 3D environments. We suggest that these results are in line with an increased stiffening of the cortex due to the crosslinking activity of overexpressed ddFLN. Our conclusion is that the absolute level of ddFLN is critical for efficient migration. Furthermore, our results show that under conditions of increased mechanical stress, Dictyostelium cells, like leukocytes, switch to a bleb-based mode of movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Roth
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Matthias Samereier
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Gudrun Trommler
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Angelika A Noegel
- Institute for Biochemistry I, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, 50931, Cologne, Germany
| | - Michael Schleicher
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Annette Müller-Taubenberger
- Department of Cell Biology (Anatomy III), Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred Chang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York 10032;
| | - Nicolas Minc
- Institut Jacques Monod, UMR7592 CNRS, 75205 Paris cedex 13, France;
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Zhao S, Gao R, Devreotes PN, Mogilner A, Zhao M. 3D arrays for high throughput assay of cell migration and electrotaxis. Cell Biol Int 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjun Zhao
- Laboratory of Regenerative Biology; Key Laboratory of Yunnan for Biomass Energy and Biotechnology of Environment; School of Life Sciences; Yunnan Normal University; Kunming 650500 China
- Institute for Regenerative Cures; University of California; Davis; School of Medicine; Sacramento CA 95616 USA
| | - Runchi Gao
- Laboratory of Regenerative Biology; Key Laboratory of Yunnan for Biomass Energy and Biotechnology of Environment; School of Life Sciences; Yunnan Normal University; Kunming 650500 China
- Institute for Regenerative Cures; University of California; Davis; School of Medicine; Sacramento CA 95616 USA
| | - Peter N. Devreotes
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy; Johns Hopkins University; School of Medicine; Baltimore MD 21205 USA
| | - Alex Mogilner
- Departments of Neurobiology; Physiology and Behavior; University of California at Davis; Davis CA 95817 USA
| | - Min Zhao
- Laboratory of Regenerative Biology; Key Laboratory of Yunnan for Biomass Energy and Biotechnology of Environment; School of Life Sciences; Yunnan Normal University; Kunming 650500 China
- Institute for Regenerative Cures; University of California; Davis; School of Medicine; Sacramento CA 95616 USA
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