Solid Catalysts on the Nanoscale: Design of Complex Morphologies and Pore Structures

Straightforward Immobilization of Phosphonic Acids and Phosphoric Acid Esters on Mesoporous Silica and Their Application in an Asymmetric Aldol Reaction

The combined benefits of moisture-stable phosphonic acids and mesoporous silica materials (SBA-15 and MCM-41) as large-surface-area solid supports offer new opportunities for several applications, such as catalysis or drug delivery. We present a comprehensive study of a straightforward synthesis method via direct immobilization of several phosphonic acids and phosphoric acid esters on various mesoporous silicas in a Dean–Stark apparatus with toluene as the solvent. Due to the utilization of azeotropic distillation, there was no need to dry phosphonic acids, phosphoric acid esters, solvents, or silicas prior to synthesis. In addition to modeling phosphonic acids, immobilization of the important biomolecule adenosine monophosphate (AMP) on the porous supports was also investigated. Due to the high surface area of the mesoporous silicas, a possible catalytic application based on immobilization of an organocatalyst for an asymmetric aldol reaction is discussed.

Hydrogels as Porogens for Nanoporous Inorganic Materials

Organic polymer-hydrogels are known to be capable of directing the nucleation and growth of inorganic materials, such as silica, metal oxides, apatite or metal chalcogenides. This approach can be exploited in the synthesis of materials that exhibit defined nanoporosity. When the organic polymer-based hydrogel is incorporated in the inorganic product, a composite is formed from which the organic component may be selectively removed, yielding nanopores in the inorganic product. Such porogenic impact resembles the concept of using soft or hard templates for porous materials. This micro-review provides a survey of select examples from the literature.

Bimagnetic urchin-like Co3O4/CoFe2O4 nanocomposites: synthesis and magnetic properties

The nanocomposite Co₃O₄/CoFe₂O₄ heterostructured material was produced via a simple solid–solid reaction of an iron precursor with urchin-like Co₃O₄. The nanocomposite behaves as an exchange coupled system with a cooperative magnetic switching.

Selective transformation of syngas into gasoline-range hydrocarbons over mesoporous H-ZSM-5-supported cobalt nanoparticles

Bifunctional Fischer-Tropsch (FT) catalysts that couple uniform-sized Co nanoparticles for CO hydrogenation and mesoporous zeolites for hydrocracking/isomerization reactions were found to be promising for the direct production of gasoline-range (C5-11 ) hydrocarbons from syngas. The Brønsted acidity results in hydrocracking/isomerization of the heavier hydrocarbons formed on Co nanoparticles, while the mesoporosity contributes to suppressing the formation of lighter (C1-4 ) hydrocarbons. The selectivity for C5-11 hydrocarbons could reach about 70 % with a ratio of isoparaffins to n-paraffins of approximately 2.3 over this catalyst, and the former is markedly higher than the maximum value (ca. 45 %) expected from the Anderson-Schulz-Flory distribution. By using n-hexadecane as a model compound, it was clarified that both the acidity and mesoporosity play key roles in controlling the hydrocracking reactions and thus contribute to the improved product selectivity in FT synthesis.

Fischer-Tropsch catalysts for the production of hydrocarbon fuels with high selectivity

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis is a key reaction in the utilization of non-petroleum carbon resources, such as methane (natural gas, shale gas, and biogas), coal, and biomass, for the sustainable production of clean liquid fuels from synthesis gas. Selectivity control is one of the biggest challenges in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. This Minireview focuses on the development of new catalysts with controllable product selectivities. Recent attempts to increase the selectivity to C5+ hydrocarbons by preparing catalysts with well-defined active phases or with new supports or by optimizing the interaction between the promoter and the active phase are briefly highlighted. Advances in developing bifunctional catalysts capable of catalyzing both CO hydrogenation to heavier hydrocarbons and hydrocracking/isomerization of heavier hydrocarbons are critically reviewed. It is demonstrated that the control of the secondary hydrocracking reactions by using core-shell nanostructures or solid-acid materials, such as mesoporous zeolites and carbon nanotubes with acid functional groups, is an effective strategy to tune the product selectivity of Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Very promising selectivities to gasoline- and diesel-range hydrocarbons have been attained over some bifunctional catalysts.

Desilication mechanism revisited: highly mesoporous all-silica zeolites enabled through pore-directing agents

The role of pore-directing agents (PDAs) in the introduction of hierarchical porosity in silicalite-1 in alkaline medium was investigated. By incorporation of various PDAs in aqueous NaOH, homogenously distributed mesopores were introduced in 2.5 μm silicalite-1 crystals. It was proven for the first time that framework aluminum is not a prerequisite for the introduction of intracrystalline mesoporosity by desilication. The pore-directing role is not directly exerted by framework trivalent cations metals, but by species on the external surface of the zeolite. The inclusion of metal complexes (Al(OH)(4)(-), Ga(OH)(4)(-)) and tetraalkyl ammonium cations (tetramethyl ammonium (TMA(+)), tetrapropyl ammonium (TPA(+))) in the alkaline solution led to distinct mesopore surface areas (up to 286 m(2) g(-1)) and pore sizes centered in the range of 5-20 nm. In the case alkaline treatment was performed in the presence of Al(OH)(4)(-), all aluminum partially integrated in the zeolite giving rise to both Lewis and Brønsted acidity. Apart from the concentration and location, the affinity of the PDA to the zeolite surface plays a crucial role in the pore formation process. If the PDA is attracted too strongly (e.g., TMA(+)), the dissolution is reduced dramatically. When the pore-directing agent is not attracted to the zeolite's external surface, excessive dissolution occurs (standard alkaline treatment). TPA(+) proved to be the most effective PDA as its presence led to high mesopore surface areas (>200 m(2) g(-1)) over a broad range of PDA concentrations (0.003-0.1 M). Importantly, our results enable to extend the suitability of desilication for controlled mesopore formation to all-silica zeolites.