1
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Foscato M, Occhipinti G, Hopen Eliasson SH, Jensen VR. Automated de Novo Design of Olefin Metathesis Catalysts: Computational and Experimental Analysis of a Simple Thermodynamic Design Criterion. J Chem Inf Model 2024; 64:412-424. [PMID: 38247361 PMCID: PMC10806812 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c01649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Methods for computational de novo design of inorganic molecules have paved the way for automated design of homogeneous catalysts. Such studies have so far relied on correlation-based prediction models as fitness functions (figures of merit), but the soundness of these approaches has yet to be tested by experimental verification of de novo-designed catalysts. Here, a previously developed criterion for the optimization of dative ligands L in ruthenium-based olefin metathesis catalysts RuCl2(L)(L')(═CHAr), where Ar is an aryl group and L' is a phosphine ligand dissociating to activate the catalyst, was used in de novo design experiments. These experiments predicted catalysts bearing an N-heterocyclic carbene (L = 9) substituted by two N-bound mesityls and two tert-butyl groups at the imidazolidin-2-ylidene backbone to be promising. Whereas the phosphine-stabilized precursor assumed by the prediction model could not be made, a pyridine-stabilized ruthenium alkylidene complex (17) bearing carbene 9 was less active than a known leading pyridine-stabilized Grubbs-type catalyst (18, L = H2IMes). A density functional theory-based analysis showed that the unsubstituted metallacyclobutane (MCB) intermediate generated in the presence of ethylene is the likely resting state of both 17 and 18. Whereas the design criterion via its correlation between the stability of the MCB and the rate-determining barrier indeed seeks to stabilize the MCB, it relies on RuCl2(L)(L')(═CH2) adducts as resting states. The change in resting state explains the discrepancy between the prediction and the actual performance of catalyst 17. To avoid such discrepancies and better address the multifaceted challenges of predicting catalytic performance, future de novo catalyst design studies should explore and test design criteria incorporating information from more than a single relative energy or intermediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Foscato
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Giovanni Occhipinti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | | | - Vidar R. Jensen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
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2
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Iaia EP, Soyemi A, Szilvási T, Harris JW. Zeolite encapsulated organometallic complexes as model catalysts. Dalton Trans 2023; 52:16103-16112. [PMID: 37812079 DOI: 10.1039/d3dt02126b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
Heterogeneities in the structure of active centers in metal-containing porous materials are unavoidable and complicate the description of chemical events occurring along reaction coordinates at the atomic level. Metal containing zeolites include sites of varied local coordination and secondary confining environments, requiring careful titration protocols to quantify the predominant active sites. Hybrid organometallic-zeolite catalysts are useful well-defined platform materials for spectroscopic, kinetic, and computational studies of heterogeneous catalysis that avoid the complications of conventional metal-containing porous materials. Such materials have been synthesized and studied previously, but catalytic applications were mostly limited to liquid-phase oxidation and electrochemical reactions. The hydrothermal stability, time-on-stream stability, and utility of these materials in gas-phase oxidation reactions are under-studied. The potential applications for single-site heterogeneous catalysts in fundamental research are abundant and motivate future synthetic, spectroscopic, kinetic, and computational studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan P Iaia
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA.
| | - Ademola Soyemi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA.
| | - Tibor Szilvási
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA.
| | - James W Harris
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA.
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3
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Zaar F, Moyses Araujo C, Emanuelsson R, Strømme M, Sjödin M. Tetraphenylporphyrin electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction: applicability of molecular volcano plots to experimental operating conditions. Dalton Trans 2023; 52:10348-10362. [PMID: 37462421 DOI: 10.1039/d3dt01250f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have seen an increasing interest in molecular electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Efficient hydrogen evolution would play an important role in a sustainable fuel economy, and molecular systems could serve as highly specific and tunable alternatives to traditional noble metal surface catalysts. However, molecular catalysts are currently mostly used in homogeneous setups, where quantitative evaluation of catalytic activity is non-standardized and cumbersome, in particular for multistep, multielectron processes. The molecular design community would therefore be well served by a straightforward model for prediction and comparison of the efficiency of molecular catalysts. Recent developments in this area include attempts at applying the Sabatier principle and the volcano plot concept - popular tools for comparing metal surface catalysts - to molecular catalysis. In this work, we evaluate the predictive power of these tools in the context of experimental operating conditions, by applying them to a series of tetraphenylporphyrins employed as molecular electrocatalysts of the HER. We show that the binding energy of H and the redox chemistry of the porphyrins depend solely on the electron withdrawing ability of the central metal ion, and that the thermodynamics of the catalytic cycle follow a simple linear free energy relation. We also find that the catalytic efficiency of the porphyrins is almost exclusively determined by reaction kinetics and therefore cannot be explained by thermodynamics alone. We conclude that the Sabatier principle, linear free energy relations and molecular volcano plots are insufficient tools for predicting and comparing activity of molecular catalysts, and that experimentally useful information of catalytic performance can still only be obtained through detailed knowledge of the catalytic pathway for each individual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicia Zaar
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Division of Nanotechnology and Functional Materials, Uppsala University, Box 35, SE-751 03 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - C Moyses Araujo
- Materials Theory Division, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala University, Box 516, SE-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Engineering and Physics, Karlstad University, 651 88 Karlstad, Sweden
| | - Rikard Emanuelsson
- Department of Chemistry - BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Maria Strømme
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Division of Nanotechnology and Functional Materials, Uppsala University, Box 35, SE-751 03 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Martin Sjödin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Division of Nanotechnology and Functional Materials, Uppsala University, Box 35, SE-751 03 Uppsala, Sweden.
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4
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Razzaq S, Exner KS. Materials Screening by the Descriptor G max(η): The Free-Energy Span Model in Electrocatalysis. ACS Catal 2023; 13:1740-1758. [PMID: 36776387 PMCID: PMC9903997 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c03997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
To move from fossil-based energy resources to a society based on renewables, electrode materials free of precious noble metals are required to efficiently catalyze electrochemical processes in fuel cells, batteries, or electrolyzers. Materials screening operating at minimal computational cost is a powerful method to assess the performance of potential electrode compositions based on heuristic concepts. While the thermodynamic overpotential in combination with the volcano concept refers to the most popular descriptor-based analysis in the literature, this notion cannot reproduce experimental trends reasonably well. About two years ago, the concept of G max(η), based on the idea of the free-energy span model, has been proposed as a universal approach for the screening of electrocatalysts. In contrast to other available descriptor-based methods, G max(η) factors overpotential and kinetic effects by a dedicated evacuation scheme of adsorption free energies into an analysis of trends. In the present perspective, we discuss the application of G max(η) to different electrocatalytic processes, including the oxygen evolution and reduction reactions, the nitrogen reduction reaction, and the selectivity problem of the competing oxygen evolution and peroxide formation reactions, and we outline the advantages of this screening approach over previous investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samad Razzaq
- University
Duisburg-Essen, Faculty of Chemistry, Theoretical Inorganic Chemistry, Universitätsstraße 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Kai S. Exner
- University
Duisburg-Essen, Faculty of Chemistry, Theoretical Inorganic Chemistry, Universitätsstraße 5, 45141 Essen, Germany,Cluster
of Excellence RESOLV, 44801 Bochum, Germany,Center
for Nanointegration (CENIDE) Duisburg-Essen, 47057 Duisburg, Germany,Email
for K.S.E.:
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5
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Constructing and interpreting volcano plots and activity maps to navigate homogeneous catalyst landscapes. Nat Protoc 2022; 17:2550-2569. [PMID: 35978038 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-022-00726-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Volcano plots and activity maps are powerful tools for studying homogeneous catalysis. Once constructed, they can be used to estimate and predict the performance of a catalyst from one or more descriptor variables. The relevance and utility of these tools has been demonstrated in several areas of catalysis, with recent applications to homogeneous catalysts having been pioneered by our research group. Both volcano plots and activity maps are built from linear free energy scaling relationships that connect the value of a descriptor variable(s) with the relative energies of other catalytic cycle intermediates/transition states. These relationships must be both constructed and postprocessed appropriately to obtain the resulting plots/maps; this process requires careful execution to obtain meaningful results. In this protocol, we provide a step-by-step guide to building volcano plots and activity maps using curated reaction profile data. The reaction profile data are obtained using density functional theory computations to model the catalytic cycle. In addition, we provide volcanic, a Python code that automates the steps of the process following data acquisition. Unlike the computation of individual reaction energy profiles, our tools lead to a holistic view of homogeneous catalyst performance that can be broadly applied for both explanatory and screening purposes.
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6
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Wodrich MD, Chang M, Gallarati S, Woźniak Ł, Cramer N, Corminboeuf C. Mapping Catalyst–Solvent Interplay in Competing Carboamination/Cyclopropanation Reactions. Chemistry 2022; 28:e202200399. [PMID: 35522013 PMCID: PMC9401068 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202200399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Group 9 metals, in particular RhIII complexes with cyclopentadienyl ligands, are competent C−H activation catalysts. Recently, a Cp*RhIII‐catalyzed reaction of alkenes with N‐enoxyphthalimides showed divergent outcome based on the solvent, with carboamination favored in methanol and cyclopropanation in 2,2,2‐trifluoroethanol (TFE). Here, we create selectivity and activity maps capable of unravelling the catalyst‐solvent interplay on the outcome of these competing reactions by analyzing 42 cyclopentadienyl metal catalysts, CpXMIII (M=Co, Rh, Ir). These maps not only can be used to rationalize previously reported experimental results, but also capably predict the behavior of untested catalyst/solvent combinations as well as aid in identifying experimental protocols that simultaneously optimize both catalytic activity and selectivity (solutions in the Pareto front). In this regard, we demonstrate how and why the experimentally employed Cp*RhIII catalyst represents an ideal choice to invoke a solvent‐induced change in reactivity. Additionally, the maps reveal the degree to which even perceived minor changes in the solvent (e. g., replacing methanol with ethanol) influence the ratio of carboamination and cyclopropanation products. Overall, the selectivity and activity maps presented here provide a generalizable tool to create global pictures of anticipated reaction outcome that can be used to develop new experimental protocols spanning metal, ligand, and solvent space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Competence in Research – Catalysis (NCCR-Catalysis) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Miyeon Chang
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Simone Gallarati
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Łukasz Woźniak
- National Centre for Competence in Research – Catalysis (NCCR-Catalysis) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Nicolai Cramer
- Laboratory of Asymmetric Catalysis and Synthesis Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Competence in Research – Catalysis (NCCR-Catalysis) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Clemence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Competence in Research – Catalysis (NCCR-Catalysis) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
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7
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Durin G, Fontaine A, Berthet JC, Nicolas E, Thuéry P, Cantat T. Metal-Free Catalytic Hydrogenolysis of Silyl Triflates and Halides into Hydrosilanes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202200911. [PMID: 35315969 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202200911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The metal-free catalytic hydrogenolysis of silyl triflates and halides (I, Br) to hydrosilanes is unlocked by using arylborane Lewis acids as catalysts. In the presence of a nitrogen base, the catalyst acts as a Frustrated Lewis Pair (FLP) able to split H2 and generate a boron hydride intermediate capable of reducing (pseudo)halosilanes. This metal-free organocatalytic system is competitive with metal-based catalysts and enables the formation of a variety of hydrosilanes at room temperature in high yields (>85 %) under a low pressure of H2 (≤10 bar).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Durin
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Albane Fontaine
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Jean-Claude Berthet
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Emmanuel Nicolas
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Pierre Thuéry
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Thibault Cantat
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
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8
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Nandy A, Duan C, Goffinet C, Kulik HJ. New Strategies for Direct Methane-to-Methanol Conversion from Active Learning Exploration of 16 Million Catalysts. JACS AU 2022; 2:1200-1213. [PMID: 35647589 PMCID: PMC9135396 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.2c00176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Despite decades of effort, no earth-abundant homogeneous catalysts have been discovered that can selectively oxidize methane to methanol. We exploit active learning to simultaneously optimize methane activation and methanol release calculated with machine learning-accelerated density functional theory in a space of 16 M candidate catalysts including novel macrocycles. By constructing macrocycles from fragments inspired by synthesized compounds, we ensure synthetic realism in our computational search. Our large-scale search reveals that low-spin Fe(II) compounds paired with strong-field (e.g., P or S-coordinating) ligands have among the best energetic tradeoffs between hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) and methanol release. This observation contrasts with prior efforts that have focused on high-spin Fe(II) with weak-field ligands. By decoupling equatorial and axial ligand effects, we determine that negatively charged axial ligands are critical for more rapid release of methanol and that higher-valency metals [i.e., M(III) vs M(II)] are likely to be rate-limited by slow methanol release. With full characterization of barrier heights, we confirm that optimizing for HAT does not lead to large oxo formation barriers. Energetic span analysis reveals designs for an intermediate-spin Mn(II) catalyst and a low-spin Fe(II) catalyst that are predicted to have good turnover frequencies. Our active learning approach to optimize two distinct reaction energies with efficient global optimization is expected to be beneficial for the search of large catalyst spaces where no prior designs have been identified and where linear scaling relationships between reaction energies or barriers may be limited or unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Nandy
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Chenru Duan
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Conrad Goffinet
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Heather J. Kulik
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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9
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Durin G, Fontaine A, Berthet J, Nicolas E, Thuéry P, Cantat T. Metal‐Free Catalytic Hydrogenolysis of Silyl Triflates and Halides into Hydrosilanes**. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202200911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Durin
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex France
| | - Albane Fontaine
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex France
| | | | - Emmanuel Nicolas
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex France
| | - Pierre Thuéry
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex France
| | - Thibault Cantat
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex France
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10
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Wodrich MD, Corminboeuf C. Methoxycyclization of 1,5‐Enynes by Coinage Metal Catalysts: Is Gold Always Superior? Helv Chim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.202100134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) CH-1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Center for Competence in Research – Catalysis (NCCR-Catalysis) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) CH-1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Clémence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) CH-1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Center for Competence in Research – Catalysis (NCCR-Catalysis) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) CH-1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL) Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) CH-1015 Lausanne Switzerland
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11
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Abstract
Computational methods have emerged as a powerful tool to augment traditional experimental molecular catalyst design by providing useful predictions of catalyst performance and decreasing the time needed for catalyst screening. In this perspective, we discuss three approaches for computational molecular catalyst design: (i) the reaction mechanism-based approach that calculates all relevant elementary steps, finds the rate and selectivity determining steps, and ultimately makes predictions on catalyst performance based on kinetic analysis, (ii) the descriptor-based approach where physical/chemical considerations are used to find molecular properties as predictors of catalyst performance, and (iii) the data-driven approach where statistical analysis as well as machine learning (ML) methods are used to obtain relationships between available data/features and catalyst performance. Following an introduction to these approaches, we cover their strengths and weaknesses and highlight some recent key applications. Furthermore, we present an outlook on how the currently applied approaches may evolve in the near future by addressing how recent developments in building automated computational workflows and implementing advanced ML models hold promise for reducing human workload, eliminating human bias, and speeding up computational catalyst design at the same time. Finally, we provide our viewpoint on how some of the challenges associated with the up-and-coming approaches driven by automation and ML may be resolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ademola Soyemi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.
| | - Tibor Szilvási
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.
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12
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Abstract
ConspectusFor the past two decades, linear free energy scaling relationships and volcano plots have seen frequent use as computational tools that aid in understanding and predicting the catalytic behavior of heterogeneous and electrocatalysts. Based on Sabatier's principle, which states that a catalyst should bind a substrate neither too strongly nor too weakly, volcano plots provide an estimate of catalytic performance (e.g., overpotential, catalytic cycle thermodynamics/kinetics, etc.) through knowledge of a descriptor variable. By the use of linear free energy scaling relationships, the value of this descriptor is employed to estimate the relative energies of other catalytic cycle intermediates/transition states. Postprocessing of these relationships leads to a volcano curve that reveals the anticipated performance of each catalyst, with the best species appearing on or near the peak or plateau. While the origin of volcanoes is undoubtedly rooted in examining heterogeneously catalyzed reactions, only recently has this concept been transferred to the realm of homogeneous catalysis. This Account summarizes the work done by our group in implementing and refining "molecular volcano plots" for use in analyzing and predicting the behavior of homogeneous catalysts.We begin by taking the reader through the initial proof-of-principle study that transferred the model from heterogeneous to homogeneous catalysis by examining thermodynamic aspects of a Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reaction. By establishing linear free energy scaling relationships and reproducing the volcano shape, we definitively showed that volcano plots are also valid for homogeneous systems. On the basis of this key finding, we further illustrate how unified pictures of C-C cross-coupling thermodynamics were created using three-dimensional molecular volcanoes.The second section highlights an important transformation from "thermodynamic" to "kinetic" volcanoes by using the descriptor variable to directly estimate transition state barriers. Taking this idea further, we demonstrate how volcanoes can be used to directly predict an experimental observable, the turnover frequency. Discussion is also provided on how different flavors of molecular volcanoes can be used to analyze aspects of homogeneous catalysis of interest to experimentalists, such as determining the product selectivity and probing the substrate scope.The third section focuses on incorporating machine learning approaches into molecular volcanoes and invoking big-data-type approaches in the analysis of catalytic behavior. Specifically, we illustrate how machine learning can be used to predict the value of the descriptor variable, which facilitates nearly instantaneous screening of thousands of catalysts. With the large amount of data created from the machine learning/volcano plot tandem, we show how the resulting database can be mined to garner an enhanced understanding of catalytic processes. Emphasis is also placed on the latest generation of augmented volcano plots, which differ fundamentally from earlier volcanoes by elimination of the use of linear free energy scaling relationships and by assessment of the similarity of the complete catalytic cycle energy profile to that for an ideal reference species that is used to discriminate catalytic performance.We conclude by examining a handful of applications of molecular volcano plots to interesting problems in homogeneous catalysis and offering thoughts on the future prospects and uses of this new set of tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Boodsarin Sawatlon
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael Busch
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, Kemistintie 1, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Clemence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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13
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Dhokale B, Susarrey‐Arce A, Pekkari A, Runemark A, Moth‐Poulsen K, Langhammer C, Härelind H, Busch M, Vandichel M, Sundén H. Microwave‐heated γ‐Alumina Applied to the Reduction of Aldehydes to Alcohols. ChemCatChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202001284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bhausaheb Dhokale
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Arturo Susarrey‐Arce
- Department of Physics Chalmers University of Technology 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
- Mesoscale Chemical Systems MESA+ Institute University of Twente P.O. Box 217 Enschede 7500AE Netherlands
| | - Anna Pekkari
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
| | - August Runemark
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Kasper Moth‐Poulsen
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Christoph Langhammer
- Department of Physics Chalmers University of Technology 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Hanna Härelind
- Competence Centre for Catalysis Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Michael Busch
- Department of Chemistry and Material Science School of Chemical Engineering Aalto Universit 02150 Espoo Finland
| | - Matthias Vandichel
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Bernal Institute University of Limerick Limerick V94 T9PX Ireland
| | - Henrik Sundén
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Chalmers University of Technology 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
- Chemistry and Molecular Biology University of Gothenburg 412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
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14
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Anand M, Rohr B, Statt MJ, Nørskov JK. Scaling Relationships and Volcano Plots in Homogeneous Catalysis. J Phys Chem Lett 2020; 11:8518-8526. [PMID: 32931282 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c01991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Scaling relations and volcano plots are widely used in heterogeneous catalysis. In this Perspective, we discuss the prospects and challenges associated with the application of similar concepts in homogeneous catalysis using examples from the literature that have appeared recently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megha Anand
- Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, Fysikvej Building 311, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Brian Rohr
- Department of Chemical Engineering, SUNCAT Center for Surface Science and Catalysis, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94035, United States
| | - Michael J Statt
- Department of Chemical Engineering, SUNCAT Center for Surface Science and Catalysis, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94035, United States
| | - Jens K Nørskov
- Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, Fysikvej Building 311, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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15
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Sawatlon B, Wodrich MD, Corminboeuf C. Probing Substrate Scope with Molecular Volcanoes. Org Lett 2020; 22:7936-7941. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.0c02862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Boodsarin Sawatlon
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matthew D. Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Clémence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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16
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Wodrich MD, Fabrizio A, Meyer B, Corminboeuf C. Data-powered augmented volcano plots for homogeneous catalysis. Chem Sci 2020; 11:12070-12080. [PMID: 34123219 PMCID: PMC8162462 DOI: 10.1039/d0sc04289g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Given the computational resources available today, data-driven approaches can propel the next leap forward in catalyst design. Using a data-driven inspired workflow consisting of data generation, statistical analysis, and dimensionality reduction algorithms we explore trends surrounding the thermodynamics of a model hydroformylation reaction catalyzed by group 9 metals bearing phosphine ligands. Specifically, we introduce "augmented volcano plots" as a means to easily visualize the similarity of each catalyst's complete catalytic cycle energy profile to that of a hypothetical ideal reference profile without relying upon linear scaling relationships. In addition to quickly identifying catalysts that most closely match the ideal thermodynamic catalytic cycle energy profile, these maps also enable a more refined comparison of closely lying species in standard volcano plots. For the reaction studied here, they inherently uncover the presence of multiple sets of scaling relationships differentiated by metal type, where iridium catalysts follow distinct relationships from cobalt/rhodium catalysts and have profiles that more closely match the ideal thermodynamic profile. Reconstituted molecular volcano plots confirm the findings of the augmented volcanoes by showing that hydroformylation thermodynamics are governed by two distinct volcano shapes, one for iridium catalysts and a second for cobalt/rhodium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Alberto Fabrizio
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Meyer
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Clemence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Center for Competence in Research - Catalysis (NCCR-Catalysis), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
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17
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Foscato
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Vidar R. Jensen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
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18
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Yang LC, Hong X. Scaling relationships and volcano plots of homogeneous transition metal catalysis. Dalton Trans 2020; 49:3652-3657. [DOI: 10.1039/d0dt00187b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
This Frontier article highlights the recent applications of linear scaling relationships and volcano plots in homogeneous transition metal catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Cheng Yang
- Department of Chemistry
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
| | - Xin Hong
- Department of Chemistry
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
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19
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Anand M, Nørskov JK. Scaling Relations in Homogeneous Catalysis: Analyzing the Buchwald–Hartwig Amination Reaction. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b04323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Megha Anand
- Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
- Department of Chemical Engineering, SUNCAT Center for Surface Science and Catalysis, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94035, United States
| | - Jens K. Nørskov
- Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
- Department of Chemical Engineering, SUNCAT Center for Surface Science and Catalysis, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94035, United States
- SUNCAT Center for Surface Science and Catalysis, SLAC National Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
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20
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Gaggioli CA, Stoneburner SJ, Cramer CJ, Gagliardi L. Beyond Density Functional Theory: The Multiconfigurational Approach To Model Heterogeneous Catalysis. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b01775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Alberto Gaggioli
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Theory Center and Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Samuel J. Stoneburner
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Theory Center and Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Christopher J. Cramer
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Theory Center and Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Laura Gagliardi
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Theory Center and Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
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21
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Sawatlon B, Wodrich MD, Meyer B, Fabrizio A, Corminboeuf C. Data Mining the C−C Cross‐Coupling Genome. ChemCatChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201900597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Boodsarin Sawatlon
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and EngineeringEcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Matthew D. Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and EngineeringEcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Meyer
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and EngineeringEcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL)Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Alberto Fabrizio
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and EngineeringEcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL)Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Clémence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design Institute of Chemical Sciences and EngineeringEcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL)Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
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22
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Wodrich MD, Sawatlon B, Solel E, Kozuch S, Corminboeuf C. Activity-Based Screening of Homogeneous Catalysts through the Rapid Assessment of Theoretically Derived Turnover Frequencies. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b00717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Boodsarin Sawatlon
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ephrath Solel
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 841051, Israel
| | - Sebastian Kozuch
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 841051, Israel
| | - Clémence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design, Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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23
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Sawatlon B, Wodrich MD, Corminboeuf C. Unraveling Metal/Pincer Ligand Effects in the Catalytic Hydrogenation of Carbon Dioxide to Formate. Organometallics 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.8b00490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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24
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Wodrich MD, Busch M, Corminboeuf C. Expedited Screening of Active and Regioselective Catalysts for the Hydroformylation Reaction. Helv Chim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.201800107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design; Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Michael Busch
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design; Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL); Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Clémence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design; Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL); Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
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25
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Meyer B, Sawatlon B, Heinen S, von Lilienfeld OA, Corminboeuf C. Machine learning meets volcano plots: computational discovery of cross-coupling catalysts. Chem Sci 2018; 9:7069-7077. [PMID: 30310627 PMCID: PMC6137445 DOI: 10.1039/c8sc01949e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The application of modern machine learning to challenges in atomistic simulation is gaining attraction.
The application of modern machine learning to challenges in atomistic simulation is gaining attraction. We present new machine learning models that can predict the energy of the oxidative addition process between a transition metal complex and a substrate for C–C cross-coupling reactions. In turn, this quantity can be used as a descriptor to estimate the activity of homogeneous catalysts using molecular volcano plots. The versatility of this approach is illustrated for vast libraries of organometallic catalysts based on Pt, Pd, Ni, Cu, Ag, and Au combined with 91 ligands. Out-of-sample machine learning predictions were made on a total of 18 062 compounds leading to 557 catalyst candidates falling into the ideal thermodynamic window. This number was further refined by searching for candidates with an estimated price lower than 10 US$ per mmol. The 37 catalyst finalists are dominated by palladium phosphine ligand combinations but also include the earth abundant transition metal (Cu) with less common ligands. Our results indicate that modern statistical learning techniques can be applied to the computational discovery of readily available and promising catalyst candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Meyer
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design , Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne , Switzerland . .,National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL) , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Boodsarin Sawatlon
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design , Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne , Switzerland . .,National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL) , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Stefan Heinen
- Institute of Physical Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , University of Basel , Klingelbergstrasse 80 , CH-4056 Basel , Switzerland . .,National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL) , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - O Anatole von Lilienfeld
- Institute of Physical Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , University of Basel , Klingelbergstrasse 80 , CH-4056 Basel , Switzerland . .,National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL) , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Clémence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design , Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , CH-1015 Lausanne , Switzerland . .,National Center for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL) , École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Lausanne , Switzerland
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26
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Busch M, Wodrich MD, Corminboeuf C. Improving the Thermodynamic Profiles of Prospective Suzuki-Miyaura Cross-Coupling Catalysts by Altering the Electrophilic Coupling Component. ChemCatChem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201701710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Busch
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design; Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL); Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- Current Address: Department of Physics; Chalmers University of Technology; Fysikgränd 3 SE-412 96 Göteborg Sweden
| | - Matthew D. Wodrich
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design; Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Clémence Corminboeuf
- Laboratory for Computational Molecular Design; Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering; Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials (MARVEL); Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
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