1
|
Zand F, Hangx SJT, Spiers CJ, van den Brink PJ, Burns J, Boebinger MG, Poplawsky JD, Monai M, Weckhuysen BM. Elucidating the Structure and Composition of Individual Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Supported Catalysts by Atom Probe Tomography. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:17299-17308. [PMID: 37490556 PMCID: PMC10416302 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c04474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Understanding and controlling the structure and composition of nanoparticles in supported metal catalysts are crucial to improve chemical processes. For this, atom probe tomography (APT) is a unique tool, as it allows for spatially resolved three-dimensional chemical imaging of materials with sub-nanometer resolution. However, thus far APT has not been applied for mesoporous oxide-supported metal catalyst materials, due to the size and number of pores resulting in sample fracture during experiments. To overcome these issues, we developed a high-pressure resin impregnation strategy and showcased the applicability to high-porous supported Pd-Ni-based catalyst materials, which are active in CO2 hydrogenation. Within the reconstructed volume of 3 × 105 nm3, we identified over 400 Pd-Ni clusters, with compositions ranging from 0 to 16 atom % Pd and a size distribution of 2.6 ± 1.6 nm. These results illustrate that APT is capable of quantitatively assessing the size, composition, and metal distribution for a large number of nanoparticles at the sub-nm scale in industrial catalysts. Furthermore, we showcase that metal segregation occurred predominately between nanoparticles, shedding light on the mechanism of metal segregation. We envision that the presented methodology expands the capabilities of APT to investigate porous functional nanomaterials, including but not limited to solid catalysts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florian Zand
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Institute for Sustainable and Circular
Chemistry and Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Suzanne J. T. Hangx
- High
Pressure and Temperature Laboratory, Utrecht
University, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Christopher J. Spiers
- High
Pressure and Temperature Laboratory, Utrecht
University, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - James Burns
- Center
for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Matthew G. Boebinger
- Center
for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Jonathan D. Poplawsky
- Center
for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Matteo Monai
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Institute for Sustainable and Circular
Chemistry and Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Institute for Sustainable and Circular
Chemistry and Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Winkler P, Raab M, Zeininger J, Rois LM, Suchorski Y, Stöger-Pollach M, Amati M, Parmar R, Gregoratti L, Rupprechter G. Imaging Interface and Particle Size Effects by In Situ Correlative Microscopy of a Catalytic Reaction. ACS Catal 2023; 13:7650-7660. [PMID: 37288091 PMCID: PMC10242684 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.3c00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The catalytic behavior of Rh particles supported by three different materials (Rh, Au, and ZrO2) in H2 oxidation has been studied in situ by correlative photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) and scanning photoemission electron microscopy (SPEM). Kinetic transitions between the inactive and active steady states were monitored, and self-sustaining oscillations on supported Rh particles were observed. Catalytic performance differed depending on the support and Rh particle size. Oscillations varied from particle size-independent (Rh/Rh) via size-dependent (Rh/ZrO2) to fully inhibited (Rh/Au). For Rh/Au, the formation of a surface alloy induced such effects, whereas for Rh/ZrO2, the formation of substoichiometric Zr oxides on the Rh surface, enhanced oxygen bonding, Rh-oxidation, and hydrogen spillover onto the ZrO2 support were held responsible. The experimental observations were complemented by micro-kinetic simulations, based on variations of hydrogen adsorption and oxygen binding. The results demonstrate how correlative in situ surface microscopy enables linking of the local structure, composition, and catalytic performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Winkler
- Institute
of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Maximilian Raab
- Institute
of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Johannes Zeininger
- Institute
of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Lea M. Rois
- Institute
of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Yuri Suchorski
- Institute
of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Michael Stöger-Pollach
- University
Service Center for Transmission Electron Microscopy, TU Wien, Wiedner Hauptstraße 8-10, Vienna 1040, Austria
| | - Matteo Amati
- Elettra-Sincrotrone
Trieste S.C.p.A., SS
14 km 163.5 in AREA Science Park, Trieste 34149, Italy
| | - Rahul Parmar
- Elettra-Sincrotrone
Trieste S.C.p.A., SS
14 km 163.5 in AREA Science Park, Trieste 34149, Italy
| | - Luca Gregoratti
- Elettra-Sincrotrone
Trieste S.C.p.A., SS
14 km 163.5 in AREA Science Park, Trieste 34149, Italy
| | - Günther Rupprechter
- Institute
of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna 1060, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Dery S, Friedman B, Shema H, Gross E. Mechanistic Insights Gained by High Spatial Resolution Reactivity Mapping of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous (Electro)Catalysts. Chem Rev 2023; 123:6003-6038. [PMID: 37037476 PMCID: PMC10176474 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
The recent development of high spatial resolution microscopy and spectroscopy tools enabled reactivity analysis of homogeneous and heterogeneous (electro)catalysts at previously unattainable resolution and sensitivity. These techniques revealed that catalytic entities are more heterogeneous than expected and local variations in reaction mechanism due to divergences in the nature of active sites, such as their atomic properties, distribution, and accessibility, occur both in homogeneous and heterogeneous (electro)catalysts. In this review, we highlight recent insights in catalysis research that were attained by conducting high spatial resolution studies. The discussed case studies range from reactivity detection of single particles or single molecular catalysts, inter- and intraparticle communication analysis, and probing the influence of catalysts distribution and accessibility on the resulting reactivity. It is demonstrated that multiparticle and multisite reactivity analyses provide unique knowledge about reaction mechanism that could not have been attained by conducting ensemble-based, averaging, spectroscopy measurements. It is highlighted that the integration of spectroscopy and microscopy measurements under realistic reaction conditions will be essential to bridge the gap between model-system studies and real-world high spatial resolution reactivity analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shahar Dery
- Institute of Chemistry and The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Barak Friedman
- Institute of Chemistry and The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Hadar Shema
- Institute of Chemistry and The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Elad Gross
- Institute of Chemistry and The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zeininger J, Winkler P, Raab M, Suchorski Y, Prieto MJ, Tănase LC, de Souza Caldas L, Tiwari A, Schmidt T, Stöger-Pollach M, Steiger-Thirsfeld A, Roldan Cuenya B, Rupprechter G. Pattern Formation in Catalytic H 2 Oxidation on Rh: Zooming in by Correlative Microscopy. ACS Catal 2022; 12:11974-11983. [PMID: 36249872 PMCID: PMC9552168 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c03692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Spatio-temporal nonuniformities in H2 oxidation
on individual
Rh(h k l) domains of a polycrystalline Rh foil were studied in the 10–6 mbar pressure range by photoemission electron microscopy
(PEEM), X-ray photoemission electron microscopy (XPEEM), and low-energy
electron microscopy (LEEM). The latter two were used for in situ correlative
microscopy to zoom in with significantly higher lateral resolution,
allowing detection of an unusual island-mediated oxygen front propagation
during kinetic transitions. The origin of the island-mediated front
propagation was rationalized by model calculations based on a hybrid
approach of microkinetic modeling and Monte Carlo simulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Zeininger
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Philipp Winkler
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Maximilian Raab
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Yuri Suchorski
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Mauricio J. Prieto
- Department of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Liviu C. Tănase
- Department of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lucas de Souza Caldas
- Department of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Aarti Tiwari
- Department of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Schmidt
- Department of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Stöger-Pollach
- University Service Center for Transmission Electron Microscopy, TU Wien, Wiedner Hauptstraße 8-10, 1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Steiger-Thirsfeld
- University Service Center for Transmission Electron Microscopy, TU Wien, Wiedner Hauptstraße 8-10, 1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Beatriz Roldan Cuenya
- Department of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Günther Rupprechter
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
van Vreeswijk SH, Weckhuysen BM. Emerging Analytical Methods to Characterize Zeolite-Based Materials. Natl Sci Rev 2022; 9:nwac047. [PMID: 36128456 PMCID: PMC9477204 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwac047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Zeolites and zeolitic materials are, through their use in numerous conventional and sustainable applications, very important to our daily lives, including to foster the necessary transition to a more circular society. The characterization of zeolite-based materials has a tremendous history and a great number of applications and properties of these materials have been discovered in the past decades. This review focuses on recently developed novel as well as more conventional techniques applied with the aim of better understanding zeolite-based materials. Recently explored analytical methods, e.g. atom probe tomography, scanning transmission X-ray microscopy, confocal fluorescence microscopy and photo-induced force microscopy, are discussed on their important contributions to the better understanding of zeolites as they mainly focus on the micro- to nanoscale chemical imaging and the revelation of structure–composition–performance relationships. Some other techniques have a long and established history, e.g. nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared, neutron scattering, electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction techniques, and have gone through increasing developments allowing the techniques to discover new and important features in zeolite-based materials. Additional to the increasing application of these methods, multiple techniques are nowadays used to study zeolites under working conditions (i.e. the in situ/operando mode of analysis) providing new insights in reaction and deactivation mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S H van Vreeswijk
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - B M Weckhuysen
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Petersen H, Weidenthaler C. A review of recent developments for the in situ/operando characterization of nanoporous materials. Inorg Chem Front 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2qi00977c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This is a review on up-to-date in situ/operando methods for a comprehensive characterization of nanoporous materials. The group of nanoporous materials is constantly growing, and with it, the variety of...
Collapse
|
7
|
Becher J, Sanchez DF, Doronkin DE, Zengel D, Meira DM, Pascarelli S, Grunwaldt JD, Sheppard TL. Chemical gradients in automotive Cu-SSZ-13 catalysts for NOx removal revealed by operando X-ray spectrotomography. Nat Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1038/s41929-020-00552-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
|
8
|
Ye X, Schmidt JE, Wang R, van Ravenhorst IK, Oord R, Chen T, de Groot F, Meirer F, Weckhuysen BM. Deactivation of Cu-Exchanged Automotive-Emission NH 3 -SCR Catalysts Elucidated with Nanoscale Resolution Using Scanning Transmission X-ray Microscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:15610-15617. [PMID: 32011783 PMCID: PMC7522683 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201916554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
To gain insight into the underlying mechanisms of catalyst durability for the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NOx with an ammonia reductant, we employed scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) to study Cu-exchanged zeolites with the CHA and MFI framework structures before and after simulated 135 000-mile aging. X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) measurements were performed at the Al K- and Cu L-edges. The local environment of framework Al, the oxidation state of Cu, and geometric changes were analyzed, showing a multi-factor-induced catalytic deactivation. In Cu-exchanged MFI, a transformation of CuII to CuI and Cux Oy was observed. We also found a spatial correlation between extra-framework Al and deactivated Cu species near the surface of the zeolite as well as a weak positive correlation between the amount of CuI and tri-coordinated Al. By inspecting both Al and Cu in fresh and aged Cu-exchanged zeolites, we conclude that the importance of the preservation of isolated CuII sites trumps that of Brønsted acid sites for NH3 -SCR activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinwei Ye
- School of Materials Science and EngineeringKey Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (MOE)Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin)Nankai UniversityTianjin300350P. R. China
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis GroupDebye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Joel E. Schmidt
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis GroupDebye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Ru‐Pan Wang
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis GroupDebye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Ilse K. van Ravenhorst
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis GroupDebye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Ramon Oord
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis GroupDebye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Tiehong Chen
- School of Materials Science and EngineeringKey Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (MOE)Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin)Nankai UniversityTianjin300350P. R. China
| | - Frank de Groot
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis GroupDebye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Florian Meirer
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis GroupDebye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis GroupDebye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtNetherlands
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ye X, Schmidt JE, Wang R, Ravenhorst IK, Oord R, Chen T, Groot F, Meirer F, Weckhuysen BM. Deactivation of Cu‐Exchanged Automotive‐Emission NH
3
‐SCR Catalysts Elucidated with Nanoscale Resolution Using Scanning Transmission X‐ray Microscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201916554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinwei Ye
- School of Materials Science and Engineering Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (MOE) Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) Nankai University Tianjin 300350 P. R. China
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Netherlands
| | - Joel E. Schmidt
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Netherlands
| | - Ru‐Pan Wang
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Netherlands
| | - Ilse K. Ravenhorst
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Netherlands
| | - Ramon Oord
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Netherlands
| | - Tiehong Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (MOE) Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) Nankai University Tianjin 300350 P. R. China
| | - Frank Groot
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Netherlands
| | - Florian Meirer
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Netherlands
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Timoshenko J, Frenkel AI. “Inverting” X-ray Absorption Spectra of Catalysts by Machine Learning in Search for Activity Descriptors. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b03599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janis Timoshenko
- Department of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber-Institute of the Max Planck Society, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anatoly I. Frenkel
- Department of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
- Chemistry Division, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Affiliation(s)
- Petra E. de Jongh
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht University Universiteitweg 99 3584 Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Deryn E. Fogg
- Center for Catalysis Research & Innovation, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular SciencesUniversity of Ottawa 10 Marie Curie Ottawa ON K1N 6N5 Canada
| | - Li‐Zhu Wu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and ChemistryChinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 PR China
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Atom probe tomography is a well-established analytical instrument for imaging the 3D structure and composition of materials with high mass resolution, sub-nanometer spatial resolution and ppm elemental sensitivity. Thanks to recent hardware developments in Atom Probe Tomography (APT), combined with progress on site-specific focused ion beam (FIB)-based sample preparation methods and improved data treatment software, complex materials can now be routinely investigated. From model samples to complex, usable porous structures, there is currently a growing interest in the analysis of catalytic materials. APT is able to probe the end state of atomic-scale processes, providing information needed to improve the synthesis of catalysts and to unravel structure/composition/reactivity relationships. This review focuses on the study of catalytic materials with increasing complexity (tip-sample, unsupported and supported nanoparticles, powders, self-supported catalysts and zeolites), as well as sample preparation methods developed to obtain suitable specimens for APT experiments.
Collapse
|