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Koler A, Brus J, Krajnc P. RAFT Polymerisation and Hypercrosslinking Improve Crosslink Homogeneity and Surface Area of Styrene Based PolyHIPEs. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15102255. [PMID: 37242829 DOI: 10.3390/polym15102255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The influence of a polymerisation mechanism (reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer; RAFT vs. free radical polymerisation; FRP) on the porous structure of highly porous poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) polymers was investigated. The highly porous polymers were synthesised via high internal phase emulsion templating (polymerizing the continuous phase of a high internal phase emulsion), utilising either FRP or RAFT processes. Furthermore, residual vinyl groups in the polymer chains were used for the subsequent crosslinking (hypercrosslinking) applying di-tert-butyl peroxide as the source of radicals. A significant difference in the specific surface area of polymers prepared by FRP (between 20 and 35 m2/g) and samples prepared by RAFT polymerisation (between 60 and 150 m2/g) was found. Based on the results from gas adsorption and solid state NMR, it could be concluded that the RAFT polymerisation affects the homogeneous distribution of the crosslinks in the highly crosslinked styrene-co-divinylbenzene polymer network. During the initial crosslinking, RAFT polymerisation leads to the increase in mesopores with diameters between 2 and 20 nm, resulting in good accessibility of polymer chains during the hypercrosslinking reaction, which is reflected in increased microporosity. The fraction of micropores created during the hypercrosslinking of polymers prepared via RAFT is around 10% of the total pore volume, which is up to 10 times more than for polymers prepared by FRP. Specific surface area, mesopore surface area, and total pore volume after hypercrosslinking reach almost the same values, regardless of the initial crosslinking. The degree of hypercrosslinking was confirmed by determination of the remaining double bonds by solid-state NMR analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amadeja Koler
- PolyOrgLab, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Jiři Brus
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského náměstí 2, 16200 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Peter Krajnc
- PolyOrgLab, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
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Kinetics of Polymer Network Formation by Nitroxide-Mediated Radical Copolymerization of Styrene/Divinylbenzene in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. Processes (Basel) 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/pr10112386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The kinetics of nitroxide-mediated dispersion copolymerization with crosslinking of styrene (STY) and divinylbenzene (DVB) in supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) is addressed experimentally. 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxy (TEMPO) and dibenzoyl peroxide (BPO) were used as nitroxide controller and initiator, respectively. A high-pressure cell with lateral sapphire windows at 120 °C and 207 bar was used to carry out the polymerizations. The nitroxide-mediated homopolymerization (NMP) of STY, as well as the conventional radical copolymerization (FRC) of STY/DVB, at the same conditions were also carried out as reference and for comparison purposes. The effect of nitroxide content on polymerization rate, evolution of molecular weight averages, gel fraction, and swelling index was studied.
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Reyhani A, McKenzie TG, Fu Q, Qiao GG. Fenton‐Chemistry‐Mediated Radical Polymerization. Macromol Rapid Commun 2019; 40:e1900220. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201900220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amin Reyhani
- Polymer Science Group, Department of Chemical EngineeringThe University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Thomas G. McKenzie
- Polymer Science Group, Department of Chemical EngineeringThe University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Qiang Fu
- Polymer Science Group, Department of Chemical EngineeringThe University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Greg G. Qiao
- Polymer Science Group, Department of Chemical EngineeringThe University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
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Masoumi S, Duever TA, Penlidis A, Azimi R, López-Domínguez P, Vivaldo-Lima E. Model Discrimination between RAFT Polymerization Models Using Sequential Bayesian Methodology. MACROMOL THEOR SIMUL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/mats.201800016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samira Masoumi
- Department of Chemical Engineering; University of Waterloo; Waterloo Ontario N2L 3G1 Canada
| | - Thomas A. Duever
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Ryerson University; Toronto Ontario M5B 2K3 Canada
| | - Alexander Penlidis
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Institute for Polymer Research (IPR); University of Waterloo; Waterloo Ontario N2l 3G1 Canada
| | - Reza Azimi
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering; University of Alberta; Edmonton Alberta T6G 1H9 Canada
| | - Porfirio López-Domínguez
- Facultad de Química; Departamento de Ingeniería Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; 04510 Ciudad de México México
| | - Eduardo Vivaldo-Lima
- Facultad de Química; Departamento de Ingeniería Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; 04510 Ciudad de México México
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Wang XY, Sun XL, Chen ZH, Wang F, Wang SR, Tang Y. Highly efficient access to well-defined linear polymers with substantial vinyl pendants via ATRP of divinyl monomers. Polym Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8py00797g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Reported herein is a highly efficient access to well-defined linear polymers with substantial vinyl pendants via ATRP of dissymmetric divinyl monomers by side armed bisoxazoline (SaBOX)/copper catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
- China
| | - Xiu-Li Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
- China
| | - Zhi-Hao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
- China
| | - Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
- China
| | - Sunewang R. Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
- China
| | - Yong Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
- China
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Yan M, Huang Y, Lu M, Lin FY, Hernández NB, Cochran EW. Gel Point Suppression in RAFT Polymerization of Pure Acrylic Cross-Linker Derived from Soybean Oil. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:2701-9. [PMID: 27359245 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b00745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Here we report the reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization of acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO), a cross-linker molecule, to high conversion (>50%) and molecular weight (>100 kDa) without macrogelation. Surprisingly, gelation is suppressed in this system far beyond the expectations predicated both on Flory-Stockmeyer theory and multiple other studies of RAFT polymerization featuring cross-linking moieties. By varying AESO and initiator concentrations, we show how intra- versus intermolecular cross-linking compete, yielding a trade-off between the degree of intramolecular linkages and conversion at gel point. We measured polymer chain characteristics, including molecular weight, chain dimensions, polydispersity, and intrinsic viscosity, using multidetector gel permeation chromatography and NMR to track polymerization kinetics. We show that not only the time and conversion at macrogelation, but also the chain architecture, is largely affected by these reaction conditions. At maximal AESO concentration, the gel point approaches that predicted by the Flory-Stockmeyer theory, and increases in an exponential fashion as the AESO concentration decreases. In the most dilute solutions, macrogelation cannot be detected throughout the entire reaction. Instead, cyclization/intramolecular cross-linking reactions dominate, leading to microgelation. This work is important, especially in that it demonstrates that thermoplastic rubbers could be produced based on multifunctional renewable feedstocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengguo Yan
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University , Ames, Iowa, United States
| | - Yuerui Huang
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University , Ames, Iowa, United States
| | - Mingjia Lu
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University , Ames, Iowa, United States
| | - Fang-Yi Lin
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University , Ames, Iowa, United States
| | - Nacú B Hernández
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University , Ames, Iowa, United States
| | - Eric W Cochran
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University , Ames, Iowa, United States
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Kinetic study of RAFT homopolymerization and copolymerization in emulsion. IRANIAN POLYMER JOURNAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13726-014-0305-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Moad G. RAFT (Reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer) crosslinking (co)polymerization of multi-olefinic monomers to form polymer networks. POLYM INT 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.4767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Graeme Moad
- CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering Bag 10; Clayton South Victoria 3169 Australia
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Hernández-Ortiz JC, Vivaldo-Lima E, Dubé MA, Penlidis A. Modeling of Network Formation in Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Transfer (RAFT) Copolymerization of Vinyl/Divinyl Monomers Using a Multifunctional Polymer Molecule Approach. MACROMOL THEOR SIMUL 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/mats.201300144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julio César Hernández-Ortiz
- Facultad de Química, Departamento de Ingeniería Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; 04510 México, D.F. México
| | - Eduardo Vivaldo-Lima
- Facultad de Química, Departamento de Ingeniería Química; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; 04510 México, D.F. México
| | - Marc Arnold Dubé
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Centre for Catalysis Research and Innovation; University of Ottawa; Ottawa Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5
| | - Alexander Penlidis
- Institute for Polymer Research, Department of Chemical Engineering; University of Waterloo; Waterloo Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
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Barlow (née Tan) KJ, Hao X, Hughes TC, Hutt OE, Polyzos A, Turner KA, Moad G. Porous, functional, poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) monoliths by RAFT polymerization. Polym Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c3py01015e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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11
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Gonçalves MAD, Pinto VD, Dias RCS, Costa MRPFN, Aguiar LG, Giudici R. Gel Formation in Aqueous Suspension Nitroxide-Mediated Radical Co-Polymerization of Styrene/Divinylbenzene. MACROMOL REACT ENG 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/mren.201200058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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12
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Jaramillo-Soto G, Vivaldo-Lima E. RAFT Copolymerization of Styrene/Divinylbenzene in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. Aust J Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1071/ch12291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
An experimental study on the kinetics of the reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) dispersion copolymerization with crosslinking of styrene and divinylbenzene in supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) is presented. This is the first time that such a controlled polymer network synthesis is carried out in scCO2. S-Thiobenzoyl thioglycolic acid (TBTGA) and dibenzoyl peroxide were used as RAFT agent and initiator, respectively. The polymerizations were carried out in a high pressure cell with lateral sapphire windows at 80°C. The effect of RAFT agent concentration, including the case without RAFT controller, on polymerization rate, molecular weight development, gel fraction, swelling index, and particle morphology was analysed.
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Moad G, Rizzardo E, Thang SH. Living Radical Polymerization by the RAFT Process – A Third Update. Aust J Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1071/ch12295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 825] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This paper provides a third update to the review of reversible deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP) achieved with thiocarbonylthio compounds (ZC(=S)SR) by a mechanism of reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) that was published in June 2005 (Aust. J. Chem. 2005, 58, 379). The first update was published in November 2006 (Aust. J. Chem. 2006, 59, 669) and the second in December 2009 (Aust. J. Chem. 2009, 62, 1402). This review cites over 700 publications that appeared during the period mid 2009 to early 2012 covering various aspects of RAFT polymerization which include reagent synthesis and properties, kinetics and mechanism of polymerization, novel polymer syntheses, and a diverse range of applications. This period has witnessed further significant developments, particularly in the areas of novel RAFT agents, techniques for end-group transformation, the production of micro/nanoparticles and modified surfaces, and biopolymer conjugates both for therapeutic and diagnostic applications.
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