Energy Applications of Ionic Liquids: Recent Developments and Future Prospects

Ionic liquids (ILs) consisting entirely of ions exhibit many fascinating and tunable properties, making them promising functional materials for a large number of energy-related applications. For example, ILs have been employed as electrolytes for electrochemical energy storage and conversion, as heat transfer fluids and phase-change materials for thermal energy transfer and storage, as solvents and/or catalysts for CO2 capture, CO2 conversion, biomass treatment and biofuel extraction, and as high-energy propellants for aerospace applications. This paper provides an extensive overview on the various energy applications of ILs and offers some thinking and viewpoints on the current challenges and emerging opportunities in each area. The basic fundamentals (structures and properties) of ILs are first introduced. Then, motivations and successful applications of ILs in the energy field are concisely outlined. Later, a detailed review of recent representative works in each area is provided. For each application, the role of ILs and their associated benefits are elaborated. Research trends and insights into the selection of ILs to achieve improved performance are analyzed as well. Challenges and future opportunities are pointed out before the paper is concluded.

Structural Properties of HEHN- and HAN-Based Ionic Liquid Mixtures: A Polarizable Molecular Dynamics Study

Molecular dynamics simulations of binary mixtures comprising 2-hydroxyethylhydrazinium nitrate (HEHN) and hydroxylammonium nitrate (HAN) were conducted using the polarizable APPLE&P force field to investigate fundamental properties of multimode propulsion (MMP) propellants. Calculated densities as a function of temperature were in good agreement with experiments and similar simulations. The structural properties of neat HEHN and HAN-HEHN provided insights into their inherent, protic nature. Radial distribution functions (RDFs) identified key hydrogen bonding sites located at N-H···O and O-H···O within a first solvation shell of approximately 2 Å. Angular distribution functions further affirmed the relatively strong nature of the hydrogen bonds with nearly linear directionality. The increased hydroxylammonium cation (HA+) mole fraction shows the influence of competitively strong hydrogen bonds on the overall hydrogen bond network. Dominant spatial motifs via three-dimensional distribution functions along with nearly nanosecond-long hydrogen bond lifetimes highlight the local bonding environment that may precede proton transfer reactions.

Infrared multiple photon dissociation action spectroscopy of protonated unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and proton-bound dimers of hydrazine and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine

The gas-phase structures of protonated unsymmetrical 1,1-dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and the proton-bound dimers of UDMH and hydrazine are examined by infrared multiple photon dissociation (IRMPD) action spectroscopy utilizing light generated by a free electron laser and an optical parametric oscillator laser system. To identify the structures present in the experimental studies, the measured IRMPD spectra are compared to spectra calculated at the B3LYP-GD3BJ/6-311+G(d,p) level of theory. These comparisons show that protonated UDMH binds the proton at the methylated nitrogen atom (α) with two low-lying α conformers probably being populated. For (UDMH)₂H⁺, the proton is shared between the methylated nitrogen atoms with several low-lying α conformers likely to be populated. Higher-lying conformers of (UDMH)₂H⁺ in which the proton is shared between α and β (unmethylated) nitrogen atoms cannot be ruled out on the basis of the IRPMD spectrum. For (N₂H₄)₂H⁺, there are four low-lying conformers that all reproduce the IRMPD spectrum reasonably well. As hydrazine and UDMH see usage as fuels for rocket engines, such spectra are potentially useful as a means of remotely monitoring rocket launches, especially in cases of unsuccessful launches where environmental hazards need to be assessed.

Model development and design criteria of hypergolic imidazolium ionic liquids from ignition delay time and viscosity viewpoints

The relationships between ID time, viscosity and molecular structure of hypergolic imidazolium ILs are discussed to specify ideal structural characteristics.

Synthesis and Properties of Azide-Functionalized Ionic Liquids as Attractive Hypergolic Fuels

Hypergolic ionic liquids (ILs) have shown a great promise as viable replacements for toxic and volatile hydrazine derivatives used as propellant fuels, and hence, have attracted increasing interest over the last decade. To take advantage of the reactivity and high energy density of the azido group, a family of low-cost and easily prepared azide-functionalized cation-based ILs, including fuel-rich anions, such as nitrate, dicyanamide, and nitrocyanamide anions, were synthesized and characterized. All the dicyanamide- and nitrocyanamide-based ILs exhibited spontaneous combustion upon contact with 100 % HNO₃ . The densities of these hypergolic ILs varied in the range 1.11-1.29 g cm^-3 , and the density-specific impulse, predicted based on Gaussian 09 calculations, was between 289.9 and 344.9 s g cm^-3 . The values of these two key physical properties are much higher than those of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH). Among the studied compounds, compound IL-3b, that is, 1-(2-azidoethyl)-1-methylpyrrolidin-1-ium dicyanamide, shows excellent integrated properties including the lowest viscosity (30.9 M Pa s), wide liquid operating range (-70 to 205 °C), shortest ignition-delay time (7 ms) with 100 % HNO₃ , and superior density specific impulse (302.5 s g cm^-3 ), suggesting promising applications with potential as bipropellant formulations.

Ultrafast igniting, imidazolium based hypergolic ionic liquids with enhanced hydrophobicity

Exploring ultrafast igniting and hydrolytically stable ionic liquids (ILs) has a wide scope in hypergolic rocket fuels.

Nitrogen-rich hypergolic ionic salts based on (2-methyltetrazol-5-yl)diazotates

Novel hypergolic energetic salts containing the (2-methyltetrazol-5-yl)diazotate anion were synthesized and exhibit attractive short ignition delay times with white fuming HNO₃.

Synthesis and hypergolic activity evaluation of some new ammonium-imidazolium based ionic liquids

In this study, a new class of dicyanamide-based ionic liquids containing mono and dicationic counterparts was synthesized and characterized.

Novel diol functionalized dicationic ionic liquids: synthesis, characterization and DFT calculations on H-bonding influence on thermophysical properties

DFT was used to investigate the roles of H-bonding on the thermophysical properties of two novel diol functionalized dicationic ionic liquids.

Alkyl ammonium cation stabilized biocidal polyiodides with adaptable high density and low pressure

The effective application of biocidal species requires building the active moiety into a molecular back bone that can be delivered and decomposed on demand under conditions of low pressure and prolonged high-temperature detonation. The goal is to destroy storage facilities and their contents while utilizing the biocidal products arising from the released energy to destroy any remaining harmful airborne agents. Decomposition of carefully selected iodine-rich compounds can produce large amounts of the very active biocides, hydroiodic acid (HI) and iodine (I2). Polyiodide anions, namely, I3(-), I5(-), which are excellent sources of such biocides, can be stabilized through interactions with large, symmetric cations, such as alkyl ammonium salts. We have designed and synthesized suitable compounds of adaptable high density up to 3.33 g cm(-3) that are low-pressure polyiodides with various alkyl ammonium cations, deliverable iodine contents of which range between 58.0-90.9%.

Thermophysical properties of energetic ionic liquids/nitric acid mixtures: insights from molecular dynamics simulations

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of mixtures of the room temperature ionic liquids (ILs) 1-butyl-4-methyl imidazolium [BMIM]/dicyanoamide [DCA] and [BMIM][NO3(-)] with HNO3 have been performed utilizing the polarizable, quantum chemistry based APPLE&P(®) potential. Experimentally it has been observed that [BMIM][DCA] exhibits hypergolic behavior when mixed with HNO3 while [BMIM][NO3(-)] does not. The structural, thermodynamic, and transport properties of the IL/HNO3 mixtures have been determined from equilibrium MD simulations over the entire composition range (pure IL to pure HNO3) based on bulk simulations. Additional (non-equilibrium) simulations of the composition profile for IL/HNO3 interfaces as a function of time have been utilized to estimate the composition dependent mutual diffusion coefficients for the mixtures. The latter have been employed in continuum-level simulations in order to examine the nature (composition and width) of the IL/HNO3 interfaces on the millisecond time scale.