Efficient and substrate-specific hydration of nitriles to amides in water by using a CeO2 catalyst

Vanadium-catalyzed Hydration of 2-Cyanopyrazine to Pyrazinamide with Unique Substrate Specificity

Pyrazinamide is an important medicine used for the treatment of tuberculosis(TB). The preparation of pyrazinamide via catalytic hydration of 2-cyanopyrazine is of great economic interest with high atomic economy. Heterogeneous non-precious transition metal-catalyzed hydration of nitriles under neutral reaction conditions would be rather attractive. Herein vanadium-nitrogen-carbon materials were fabricated and employed for selective hydration of nitriles using water as both the solvent and reactant. 2-Cyanopyrazine could be smoothly converted into to pyrazinamide with unique substrate specificity. Additives with different N and O atoms could significantly affect hydration of 2-cyanopyrazine due to competitive adsorption/coordination in the reaction system. This work provides a new approach for non-precious metal catalyzed hydration of nitriles.

Nanosized Ti-Based Perovskite Oxides as Acid-Base Bifunctional Catalysts for Cyanosilylation of Carbonyl Compounds

The development of effective solid acid-base bifunctional catalysts remains a challenge because of the difficulty associated with designing and controlling their active sites. In the present study, highly pure perovskite oxide nanoparticles with d⁰-transition-metal cations such as Ti⁴⁺, Zr⁴⁺, and Nb⁵⁺ as B-site elements were successfully synthesized by a sol-gel method using dicarboxylic acids. Moreover, the specific surface area of SrTiO₃ was increased to 46 m² g^-1 by a simple procedure of changing the atmosphere from N₂ to air during calcination of an amorphous precursor. The resultant SrTiO₃ nanoparticles showed the highest catalytic activity for the cyanosilylation of acetophenone with trimethylsilyl cyanide (TMSCN) among the tested catalysts not subjected to a thermal pretreatment. Various aromatic and aliphatic carbonyl compounds were efficiently converted to the corresponding cyanohydrin silyl ethers in good-to-excellent yields. The present system was applicable to a larger-scale reaction of acetophenone with TMSCN (10 mmol scale), in which 2.06 g of the analytically pure corresponding product was isolated. In this case, the reaction rate was 8.4 mmol g^-1 min^-1, which is the highest rate among those reported for heterogeneous catalyst systems that do not involve a pretreatment. Mechanistic studies, including studies of the catalyst effect, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and temperature-programmed desorption measurements using probe molecules such as pyridine, acetophenone, CO₂, and CHCl₃, and the poisoning effect of pyridine and acetic acid toward the cyanosilylation, revealed that moderate-strength acid and base sites present in moderate amounts on SrTiO₃ most likely enable SrTiO₃ to act as a bifunctional acid-base solid catalyst through cooperative activation of carbonyl compounds and TMSCN. This bifunctional catalysis through SrTiO₃ resulted in high catalytic performance even without a heat pretreatment, in sharp contrast to the performance of basic MgO and acidic TiO₂ catalysts.

Dimethyl Carbonate: Review of Synthesis Routes and Catalysts Used

This review summarizes the performance of potential catalysts for the synthesis of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) using CO2 as a feedstock by two major processes—the direct route of carbonylation of alcohols and the indirect route of alcoholysis of urea. The reaction mechanisms and corresponding catalysts that were previously investigated are discussed. The major challenges associated with the conversion of CO2 to DMC are the low yields, low DMC selectivity, and thermodynamic limitations (alcohol carbonylation) of reversible reactions with low equilibrium constants. This occurs mainly due to the highly stable carbon dioxide molecules. The development of novel catalysts with high yields and high selectivity needs to be studied to overcome these technical challenges. In addition, to enhance the DMC yield, the use of dehydrating agents for water removal from the reaction mixture is recommended and discussed in detail in this article. This review critically examines the different catalysts used by investigators, along with their respective operating conditions and suitability in applications for the commercial synthesis of CO2-based DMC.

DIPEA-induced activation of OH- for the synthesis of amides via photocatalysis

The development of green protocols for photocatalysis where water acts as a nucleophile, induced by a weak organic base, is difficult to achieve in organic chemistry. Herein, an efficient light-mediated strategy for the synthesis of amides in which a weak organic base acts as a reductant to induce the formation of OH– from water under metal-free conditions is reported. A mechanistic study reveals that the generation of an N,N-diisopropylethylamine (DIPEA) radical via single electron transfer (SET), with the assistance of photocatalyst, that increases the nucleophilicity of the water molecules with respect to the cyanides is essential. Moreover, the removal rate of nitrile in wastewater can be as high as 83%, indicating that this strategy has excellent potential for nitrile degradation.

Under weak organic base condition DIPEA as a reductant to increase the nucleophilicity of H₂O an excellent potential system for nitrile degradation.

Magnetically enhanced polymer-supported ceria nanocatalysts for the hydration of nitriles

The heterogeneous catalysis of the hydration of nitriles to amides is a process of great industrial relevance in which cerium(IV) oxide (also referred to as ceria) has shown an outstanding catalytic performance. The use of non-supported ceria nanoparticles is related to difficulties in the purification of the product and the recovery and recyclability of the catalyst. Therefore, in this work, ceria nanoparticles are supported on a polymer matrix either by synthesizing polymer particles by so-called Pickering miniemulsions while using ceria nanoparticles as emulsion stabilizers or, as a comparison, by in-situ crystallization on preformed polymer particles. The former strategy presents significant advantages over the latter in terms of time and consumption of resources, and it facilitates an easier scale-up of the process. In both strategies, the incorporation of a magnetoresponsive core within the polymer matrix allows the recovery and the recycling of the catalyst by simple application of a magnetic field and offers an enhancement of the catalytic efficiency.

Direct synthesis of amides from nonactivated carboxylic acids using urea as nitrogen source and Mg(NO3)2 or imidazole as catalysts

A new method for the direct synthesis of primary and secondary amides from carboxylic acids is described using Mg(NO3)2·6H2O or imidazole as a low-cost and readily available catalyst, and urea as a stable, and easy to manipulate nitrogen source. This methodology is particularly useful for the direct synthesis of primary and methyl amides avoiding the use of ammonia and methylamine gas which can be tedious to manipulate. Furthermore, the transformation does not require the employment of coupling or activating agents which are commonly required.

Update and Challenges in Carbon Dioxide-Based Polycarbonate Synthesis

The utilization of carbon dioxide as a comonomer to produce polycarbonates has attracted a great deal of attention from both industrial and academic communities because it promises to replace petroleum-derived plastics and supports a sustainable environment. Significant progress in the copolymerization of cyclic ethers (e.g., epoxide, oxetane) and carbon dioxide has been made in recent decades, owing to the rapid development of catalysts. In this Review, the focus is to summarize and discuss recent advances in the development of homogeneous catalysts, including metal- and organo-based complexes, as well as the preparation of carbon dioxide-based block copolymer and functional polycarbonates.

One-pot imine synthesis from methylarenes and anilines under air over heterogeneous Cu oxide-modified CeO2 catalyst

Selective one-pot synthesis of imines from methylarenes and anilines with air as an oxidant was substantiated by heterogeneous Cu oxide-modified CeO₂ (CuO_x–CeO₂) catalyst without additives.

K. Raj KR, Ghodekar MM, Patil VS, Gopinath CS, Raja T. Phase Transfer Ceria-Supported Nanocatalyst for Nitrile Hydration Reaction

The present study elaborates the catalytic effect of rare-earth metal oxides (Sm₂O₃ and La₂O₃) over ceria as a support phase transfer catalyst. The synthesized catalysts have been subjected to different characterization techniques, such as field-emission scanning electron microscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, N₂ adsorption-desorption (BET surface analysis), temperature-programmed desorption study (NH₃/CO₂-TPD), Fourier transform infrared, Raman analysis, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to get better insights into the catalytic activity of the catalysts for hydration of nitrile.

Solvent-tailored Pd3P0.95 nano catalyst for amide-nitrile inter-conversion, the hydration of nitriles and transfer hydrogenation of the C[double bond, length as m-dash]O bond

For the first time, a one pot thermolysis of [Pd(PPh3)2Cl2] prepared by reacting Ph3P with PdCl2 in a 2 : 1 molar ratio in MeOH at 280 °C in a trioctylphosphine (TOP) and oleylamine(OA)-octadecane(ODE) mixture (1 : 1) was used to prepare quantum dots (QDs; size ∼2-3 nm) and nanoparticles (NPs; size ∼13-14 nm), respectively, of composition Pd3P0.95. TEM, SEM-EDX, powder-XRD and XPS (for QDs only) were used to authenticate the two nanophases. 31P{1H}NMR experiments performed to monitor the progress of thermolysis reactions revealed that the phosphorus present in the Pd3P0.95 QDs had come from TOP, whereas in Pd3P0.95 NPs, its source is triphenylphosphine. The nature of the solvent did not affect the chemical composition of the nano-phase but controlled its size. Probably, solvent dependent, unique, single source precursors (SSPs) of palladium were generated in situ, and controlled the size. The catalytic activity of both Pd3P0.95 QDs and NPs was explored. The QDs were found to be efficient as a catalyst for the amide-nitrile interconversion at room temperature (yield up to 92% in 4 h), hydration of nitriles and transfer hydrogenation (TH) of carbonyl compounds with yields up to 96% in 3-4 h. The yields and reaction rates of amide-nitrile inter-conversion and TH when catalyzed by Pd3P0.95 QDs were found to be higher compared to the ones observed with the Pd/C catalyst. The binding energy of Pd(3d) in the X-ray photoelectron spectrum (XPS) of Pd3P0.95 indicated an electron transfer from the metal to phosphorus, resulting in electron deficient palladium, which facilitates the coordination of a substrate to Pd and drives the reaction. The reusability of Pd3P0.95 QDs for the interconversion was found to be up to 4-times, while for the transfer hydrogenation of carbonyl compounds it was up to 6-times, but with a diminished yield. Pd3P0.95 NPs were found to be less active (yield up to 36% in optimized reaction conditions) in comparison to Pd3P0.95 QDs. The mercury poisoning test suggested that the catalysis predominantly proceeded heterogeneously on the surface of the QDs. The PXRD and XPS results did not suggest a significant variation in the phase of QDs after the third catalytic cycle. The bleeding of Pd during catalysis (determined by flame AAS) and the agglomeration of QDs as supported by the SEM-EDX and TEM results are probably responsible for the reduction in the catalytic activity of QDs after reusing three times.

Strategies towards the synthesis of anti-tuberculosis drugs

In this report, we reviewed the strategies towards the synthesis of anti-tuberculosis drugs. They include semisynthetic approaches, resolution based strategies, microbial transformations, solid phase synthesis, and asymmetric synthesis.

Oxidative C(sp3)–H amidation of tertiary arylamines with nitriles

The first amidation of tertiary arylamines with nitriles via a cascade dehydrogenation/heterocoupling/addition reaction has been developed.

Hemilability-Driven Water Activation: A NiII Catalyst for Base-Free Hydration of Nitriles to Amides

The Ni^II complex 1 containing pyridyl- and hydroxy-functionalized N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) is synthesized and its catalytic utility for the selective nitrile hydration to the corresponding amide under base-free conditions is evaluated. The title compound exploits a hemilabile pyridyl unit to interact with a catalytically relevant water molecule through hydrogen-bonding and promotes a nucleophilic water attack to the nitrile. A wide variety of nitriles is hydrated to the corresponding amides including the pharmaceutical drugs rufinamide, Rifater, and piracetam. Synthetically challenging α-hydroxyamides are accessed from cyanohydrins under neutral conditions. Related catalysts that lack the pyridyl unit (i.e., compounds 2 and 4) are not active whereas those containing both the pyridyl and the hydroxy or only the pyridyl pendant (i.e., compounds 1 and 3) show substantial activity. The linkage isomer 1' where the hydroxy group is bound to the metal instead of the pyridyl group was isolated under different crystallization conditions insinuating a ligand hemilabile behavior. Additional pK_a measurements reveal an accessible pyridyl unit under the catalytic conditions. Kinetic studies support a ligand-promoted nucleophilic water addition to a metal-bound nitrile group. This work reports a Ni-based catalyst that exhibits functional hemilability for hydration chemistry.

Synthesis of Carbonates from Alcohols and CO2

Alcohols are ubiquitous compounds in nature that offer modular building blocks for synthetic chemistry. Here we discuss the most recent development of different classes of alcohols and their coupling chemistry with carbon dioxide as to afford linear and cyclic carbonates, the challenges associated with their formation, and the potential of this chemistry to revive a waste carbon feed stock.

Pressure Regulations on the Surface Properties of CeO2 Nanorods and Their Catalytic Activity for CO Oxidation and Nitrile Hydrolysis Reactions

Surface properties of nanoscale CeO2 catalysts in terms of the surface Ce(3+) fraction and concentration of oxygen vacancy can affect their catalytic performance significantly. Continual adjustment on surface properties of CeO2 with the morphological preservation has not been realized by synthetic methods. The revisited studies show that surface properties of CeO2 nanorods can be effectively regulated by synthetic pressures while the rodlike morphology is well-preserved. Such phenomena are ascribed to the contact possibility between Ce(3+) species and dissolved O2, which is balanced by the rapidly increased and gradually saturated dissolution/recrystallization rate of Ce(OH)3 and linearly increased concentration of dissolved O2 with the increase of total air pressure or partial pressure of O2. Surface-property-dependent catalytic activity of CeO2 nanorods synthesized under various pressures was also demonstrated in two benchmark reactions-catalytic oxidation of CO and hydrolysis of nitrile. Such a finding of the pressure regulation on the reducible metal oxides provides an effective approach to rationally design novel catalysts for specific reactions, where ceria are supports, promoters, or actives.

Direct Copolymerization of CO2 and Diols

Direct polymerization of CO₂ and diols is promising as a simple and environmental-benign method in place of conventional processes using high-cost and/or hazardous reagents such as phosgene, carbon monoxide and epoxides, however, there are no reports on the direct method due to the inertness of CO₂ and severe equilibrium limitation of the reaction. Herein, we firstly substantiate the direct copolymerization of CO₂ and diols using CeO₂ catalyst and 2-cyanopyridine promotor, providing the alternating cooligomers in high diol-based yield (up to 99%) and selectivity (up to >99%). This catalyst system is applicable to various diols including linear C4-C10 α,ω-diols to provide high yields of the corresponding cooligomers, which cannot be obtained by well-known methods such as copolymerization of CO₂ and cyclic ethers and ring-opening polymerization of cyclic carbonates. This process provides us a facile synthesis method for versatile polycarbonates from various diols and CO₂ owing to simplicity of diols modification.

Chlorophosphines as auxiliary ligands in ruthenium-catalyzed nitrile hydration reactions: application to the preparation of β-ketoamides

The utility of chlorophosphines as auxiliary ligands in metal-catalyzed nitrile hydration reactions has been demonstrated, along with their application in the preparation of β-ketoamides.

Self-assembled hybrid metal oxide base catalysts prepared by simply mixing with organic modifiers

Multidentate materials formed by simply mixing heterogeneous and homogeneous components are promising for construction of versatile active sites on the surface of heterogeneous compounds, however, to the best of our knowledge, there are no reports on such materials. Self-assembly of hetero-hybrid catalytic materials occurs when heterogeneous catalysts having adjacent Lewis acid-Lewis base sites are mixed with an organic modifier that contains at least two Lewis base functional groups. Here we demonstrate the strategy by combining cerium oxide and 2-cyanopyridine that self-assembles to form a charge-transfer complex in methanol that exhibits a 2,000-fold increase in reaction rate for hydromethoxylation of acrylonitrile with high selectivity compared with cerium oxide or 2-cyanopyridine alone. The catalytic system is applied to the transesterification and Knoevenagel condensation affording 14-fold and 11-fold higher activity, respectively, than cerium oxide alone. These results demonstrate the potential versatility of the catalytic system and the generality of the catalyst preparation strategy.

Self-assembled heterogeneous/homogeneous hybrid materials may offer ease of preparation and tunable catalytic performance. Here, the authors report the accelerated selective hydromethoxylation of acrylonitrile in the presence of CeO₂ and 2-cyanopyridine, resulting from the proposed supramolecular complex.

Ceria/POLYMER hybrid nanoparticles as efficient catalysts for the hydration of nitriles to amides

We report the synthesis of ceria/polymer hybrid nanoparticles and their use as effective supported catalysts for the hydration of nitriles to amide, exemplified with the conversion of 2-cyanopiridine to 2-picolinamide. The polymeric cores, made of either polystyrene (PS) or poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), are prepared by miniemulsion copolymerization in the presence of different functional comonomers that provide carboxylic or phosphate groups: acrylic acid, maleic acid, and ethylene glycol methacrylate phosphate. The functional groups of the comonomers generate a corona around the main polymer particle and serve as nucleating agents for the in situ crystallization of cerium(IV) oxide. The obtained hybrid nanoparticles can be easily redispersed in water or ethanol. The conversion of amides to nitriles was quantitative for most of the catalytic samples, with yields close to 100%. According to our experimental observations by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), no work up is needed to separate the product from unreacted substrate. The substrate remains absorbed on the catalyst surface, whereas the product can be easily separated. The catalysts are shown to be recyclable and can be reused for a large number of cycles without loss in efficiency.

Direct oxidative esterification of alcohols and hydration of nitriles catalyzed by a reusable silver nanoparticle grafted onto mesoporous polymelamine formaldehyde (AgNPs@mPMF)

Oxidative esterification and hydration of nitriles are catalyzed by a newly synthesized AgNPs@mPMF. The catalyst is well characterized and reusable.

Chemoselective hydration of nitriles to amides using hydrated ionic liquid (IL) tetrabutylammonium hydroxide (TBAH) as a green catalyst

A green, chemoselective synthesis of amides, avoiding the use of any base, metal, or Lewis acid catalyst.

Hydration of nitriles to amides by a chitin-supported ruthenium catalyst

Chitin-supported ruthenium (Ru/chitin) promotes the hydration of nitriles to carboxamides under aqueous conditions.