Installation of Amine Moieties into a Polycyclic Anodic Product Derived from 2,4-Dimethylphenol

Photochemical and Electrochemical Applications of Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer in Organic Synthesis

We present here a review of the photochemical and electrochemical applications of multi-site proton-coupled electron transfer (MS-PCET) in organic synthesis. MS-PCETs are redox mechanisms in which both an electron and a proton are exchanged together, often in a concerted elementary step. As such, MS-PCET can function as a non-classical mechanism for homolytic bond activation, providing opportunities to generate synthetically useful free radical intermediates directly from a wide variety of common organic functional groups. We present an introduction to MS-PCET and a practitioner's guide to reaction design, with an emphasis on the unique energetic and selectivity features that are characteristic of this reaction class. We then present chapters on oxidative N-H, O-H, S-H, and C-H bond homolysis methods, for the generation of the corresponding neutral radical species. Then, chapters for reductive PCET activations involving carbonyl, imine, other X═Y π-systems, and heteroarenes, where neutral ketyl, α-amino, and heteroarene-derived radicals can be generated. Finally, we present chapters on the applications of MS-PCET in asymmetric catalysis and in materials and device applications. Within each chapter, we subdivide by the functional group undergoing homolysis, and thereafter by the type of transformation being promoted. Methods published prior to the end of December 2020 are presented.

A Decade of Electrochemical Dehydrogenative C,C-Coupling of Aryls

The importance of sustainable and green synthetic protocols for the synthesis of fine chemicals has rapidly increased during the last decades in an effort to reduce the use of fossil fuels and other finite resources. The replacement of common reagents by electricity provides a cost- and atom-efficient, environmentally friendly, and inherently safe access to novel synthetic routes. The selective formation of carbon-carbon bonds between two distinct substrates is a crucial tool in organic chemistry. This fundamental transformation enables access to a broad variety of complex molecular architectures. In particular, the aryl-aryl bond formation has high significance for the preparation of organic materials, drugs, and natural products. Besides well-known and well-established reductive- and oxidative-reagent-mediated or transition-metal-catalyzed coupling reactions, novel synthetic protocols have arisen, which require fewer steps than conventional synthetic approaches. Electroorganic conversions can be categorized according to the nature of the electron transfer processes occurring. Direct transformations at inert electrode materials are environmentally benign and cost-effective, whereas catalytic processes at active electrodes and mediated electrosynthesis using an additional soluble reagent can have beneficial properties in terms of selectivity and reactivity. In general, these conversions require challenging optimization of the reaction parameters and the appropriate cell design. Galvanostatic reactions enable fast conversions with a rather simple setup, whereas potentiostatic electrolysis may enhance selectivity. This Account discusses the development of seminal carbon-carbon bond formations over the past two decades, focusing on phenols leading to precursors for ligands in, e.g., hydroformylation reaction. A key element in the success of these electrochemical transformations is the application of electrochemically inert, non-nucleophilic, highly fluorinated alcohols such as 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP), which exhibit a large potential window for transformations and enable selective cross-coupling reactions. This selectivity is based on the capability of HFIP to stabilize organic radicals. Inert, carbon-based and metal-free electrode materials like graphite or boron-doped diamond (BDD) open up novel electroorganic pathways. Furthermore, novel active electrode materials have been developed to enable intra- and intermolecular dehydrogenative coupling reactions of electron-rich aryls. The application of 2,2'-biphenol derivatives as ligand components for catalysts requires reactions to be carried out on larger scale. In order to achieve this, continuous flow transformations have been established to overcome the drawbacks of heat transfer, overconversion, and conductivity. Modular cell designs enable the transfer of a broad variety of electroorganic conversions into continuous processes. Recent results demonstrate the application of organic electrochemistry to natural product synthesis of the pharmaceutically relevant opiate alkaloids (-)-thebaine or (-)-oxycodone.

Electrochemical Arylation Reaction

Arylated products are found in various fields of chemistry and represent essential entities for many applications. Therefore, the formation of this structural feature represents a central issue of contemporary organic synthesis. By the action of electricity the necessity of leaving groups, metal catalysts, stoichiometric oxidizers, or reducing agents can be omitted in part or even completely. The replacement of conventional reagents by sustainable electricity not only will be environmentally benign but also allows significant short cuts in electrochemical synthesis. In addition, this methodology can be considered as inherently safe. The current survey is organized in cathodic and anodic conversions as well as by the number of leaving groups being involved. In some electroconversions the reagents used are regenerated at the electrode, whereas in other electrotransformations free radical sequences are exploited to afford a highly sustainable process. The electrochemical formation of the aryl-substrate bond is discussed for aromatic substrates, heterocycles, other multiple bond systems, and even at saturated carbon substrates. This survey covers most of the seminal work and the advances of the past two decades in this area.

Synthesis of meta-Terphenyl-2,2''-diols by Anodic C-C Cross-Coupling Reactions

The anodic C-C cross-coupling reaction is a versatile synthetic approach to symmetric and non-symmetric biphenols and arylated phenols. We herein present a metal-free electrosynthetic method that provides access to symmetric and non-symmetric meta-terphenyl-2,2''-diols in good yields and high selectivity. Symmetric derivatives can be obtained by direct electrolysis in an undivided cell. The synthesis of non-symmetric meta-terphenyl-2,2''-diols required two electrochemical steps. The reactions are easy to conduct and scalable. The method also features a broad substrate scope, and a large variety of functional groups are tolerated. The target molecules may serve as [OCO](3-) pincer ligands.

Solvent-Dependent Facile Synthesis of Diaryl Selenides and Biphenols Employing Selenium Dioxide

Biphenols are important structure motifs for ligand systems in organic catalysis and are therefore included in the category of so‐called “privileged ligands”. We have developed a new synthetic pathway to construct these structures by the use of selenium dioxide, a stable, powerful, and commercially available oxidizer. Our new, and easy to perform protocol gives rise to biphenols and diaryl selenides depending on the solvent employed. Oxidative treatment of phenols in acetic acid yields the corresponding biphenols, whereas conversion in pyridine results in the preferred formation of diaryl selenides. As a consequence, we were able to isolate a broad scope of novel diaryl selenides, which could act as pincer‐like ligands with further applications in organic synthesis or as ligands in transition metal catalysis.

Metal- and reagent-free highly selective anodic cross-coupling reaction of phenols

The direct oxidative cross-coupling of phenols is a very challenging transformation, as homo-coupling is usually strongly preferred. Electrochemical methods circumvent the use of oxidizing reagents or metal catalysts and are therefore highly attractive. Employing electrolytes with a high capacity for hydrogen bonding, such as methanol with formic acid or 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol, a direct electrolysis in an undivided cell provides mixed 2,2'-biphenols with high selectivity. This mild method tolerates a variety of moieties, for example, tert-butyl groups, which are not compatible with other strong electrophilic media but vital for later catalytic applications of the formed products.