Walking Metals in d 8 ⋅⋅⋅d 8 Hetero‐bimetallic Complexes: An Original Dynamic Phenomenon

Deciphering Photoinduced Catalytic Reaction Mechanisms in Natural and Artificial Photosynthetic Systems on Multiple Temporal and Spatial Scales Using X-ray Probes

Utilization of renewable energies for catalytically generating value-added chemicals is highly desirable in this era of rising energy demands and climate change impacts. Artificial photosynthetic systems or photocatalysts utilize light to convert abundant CO2, H2O, and O2 to fuels, such as carbohydrates and hydrogen, thus converting light energy to storable chemical resources. The emergence of intense X-ray pulses from synchrotrons, ultrafast X-ray pulses from X-ray free electron lasers, and table-top laser-driven sources over the past decades opens new frontiers in deciphering photoinduced catalytic reaction mechanisms on the multiple temporal and spatial scales. Operando X-ray spectroscopic methods offer a new set of electronic transitions in probing the oxidation states, coordinating geometry, and spin states of the metal catalytic center and photosensitizers with unprecedented energy and time resolution. Operando X-ray scattering methods enable previously elusive reaction steps to be characterized on different length scales and time scales. The methodological progress and their application examples collected in this review will offer a glimpse into the accomplishments and current state in deciphering reaction mechanisms for both natural and synthetic systems. Looking forward, there are still many challenges and opportunities at the frontier of catalytic research that will require further advancement of the characterization techniques.

Crystal structure of a dicationic PdII dimer containing a 2-[(diisopropylphosphanyl)methyl]quinoline-8-thiolate pincer ligand

A dicationic PdII dimer, bis{2-[(diisopropylphosphanyl)methyl]quinoline-8-thiolato}palladium(II) bis(hexafluoridoantimonate) dichloromethane monosolvate, [Pd2(C32H42N2P2S2)](SbF6)2·CH2Cl2, containing a 2-[(diisopropylphos-phanyl)methyl]quinoline-8-thiolate pincer ligand, was isolated and its crystal structure determined. The title compound crystallizes in the ortho-rhom-bic space group Pbca. A dimeric structure is formed by bridging coordination of the S atoms. The geometry of the butterfly-shaped Pd2S2 core is bent, with a hinge angle of 108.0 (1)° and a short Pd⋯Pd distance of 2.8425 (7) Å. These values are the lowest measured compared to ten dicationic dimers with a Pd2S2 core featuring sulfur atoms embedded in a chelating ligand. One of the two hexa-fluorido-anti-monate anions is disordered over two sets of positions with site-occupancy factors of 0.711 (5) and 0.289 (5). The crystal structure is stabilized by many C-H⋯F and C-H⋯π inter-actions, forming a supra-molecular network.

Metal-ligand-Lewis acid multi-cooperative catalysis: a step forward in the Conia-ene reaction

An original multi-cooperative catalytic approach was developed by combining metal–ligand cooperation and Lewis acid activation. The [(SCS)Pd]₂ complex featuring a non-innocent indenediide-based ligand was found to be a very efficient and versatile catalyst for the Conia-ene reaction, when associated with Mg(OTf)₂. The reaction operates at low catalytic loadings under mild conditions with HFIP as a co-solvent. It works with a variety of substrates, including those bearing internal alkynes. It displays complete 5-exo vs. 6-endo regio-selectivity. In addition, except for the highly congested ^tBu-substituent, the reaction occurs with high Z vs. E stereo-selectivity, making it synthetically useful and complementary to known catalysts.

An original multi-cooperative catalytic approach was developed by combining metal–ligand cooperation and Lewis acid activation.

U- to Z-shape isomerization in a Pt2Ag2 framework containing pyridyl-NHC ligands

A highly twisted U-shaped Pt₂Ag₂ complex bearing pyridyl–NHC ligands showed isomerization to Z-shaped conformations via an intermolecular process. ¹H NMR experiments revealed that the isomerization reached U : Z = 2 : 1 ratio in a thermodynamic equilibrium state.

A case study of proton shuttling in palladium catalysis

Thanks to mechanistic studies, the catalytic performance of SCS indenediide Pd pincer complexes has been spectacularly enhanced using catechol additives as proton shuttles.

The mechanism of alkynoic acid cycloisomerization with SCS indenediide Pd pincer complexes has been investigated experimentally and computationally. These studies confirmed the cooperation between the Pd center and the backbone of the pincer ligand, and revealed the involvement of a second molecule of substrate. It acts as a proton shuttle in the activation of the acid, it directs the nucleophilic attack of the carboxylic acid on the π-coordinated alkyne and it relays the protonolysis of the resulting vinyl Pd species. A variety of H-bond donors have been evaluated as external additives, and polyols featuring proximal hydroxyl groups, in particular catechol derivatives, led to significant catalytic enhancement. The impact of 4-nitrocatechol and 1,2,3-benzenetriol is particularly striking on challenging substrates such as internal 4- and 5-alkynoic acids. Endo/exo selectivities up to 7.3/1 and 60-fold increase in reactivity were achieved.

Mechanistic Aspects of Aryl-Halide Oxidative Addition, Coordination Chemistry, and Ring-Walking by Palladium

This contribution describes the reactivity of a zero-valent palladium phosphine complex with substrates that contain both an aryl halide moiety and an unsaturated carbon-carbon bond. Although η(2) -coordination of the metal center to a C=C or C≡C unit is kinetically favored, aryl halide bond activation is favored thermodynamically. These quantitative transformations proceed under mild reaction conditions in solution or in the solid state. Kinetic measurements indicate that formation of η(2) -coordination complexes are not nonproductive side-equilibria, but observable (and in several cases even isolated) intermediates en route to aryl halide bond cleavage. At the same time, DFT calculations show that the reaction with palladium may proceed through a dissociation-oxidative addition mechanism rather than through a haptotropic intramolecular process (i.e., ring walking). Furthermore, the transition state involves coordination of a third phosphine to the palladium center, which is lost during the oxidative addition as the C-halide bond is being broken. Interestingly, selective activation of aryl halides has been demonstrated by adding reactive aryl halides to the η(2) -coordination complexes. The product distribution can be controlled by the concentration of the reactants and/or the presence of excess phosphine.

Dinuclear palladium complexes with two ligand-centered radicals and a single bridging ligand: subtle tuning of magnetic properties

The facile and tunable preparation of unique dinuclear [(L(⋅))Pd-X-Pd(L(⋅))] complexes (X = Cl or N3), bearing a ligand radical on each Pd, is disclosed, as well as their magnetochemistry in solution and solid state is reported. Chloride abstraction from [PdCl(NNO(ISQ))] (NNO(ISQ) = iminosemiquinonato) with TlPF6 results in an unusual monochlorido-bridged dinuclear open-shell diradical species, [{Pd(NNO(ISQ))}2(μ-Cl)](+), with an unusually small Pd-Cl-Pd angle (ca. 93°, determined by X-ray). This suggests an intramolecular d(8)-d(8) interaction, which is supported by DFT calculations. SQUID measurements indicate moderate antiferromagnetic spin exchange between the two ligand radicals and an overall singlet ground state in the solid state. VT EPR spectroscopy shows a transient signal corresponding to a triplet state between 20 and 60 K. Complex 2 reacts with PPh3 to generate [Pd(NNO(ISQ))(PPh3)](+) and one equivalent of [PdCl(NNO(ISQ))]. Reacting an 1:1 mixture of [PdCl(NNO(ISQ))] and [Pd(N3)(NNO(ISQ))] furnishes the 1,1-azido-bridged dinuclear diradical [{Pd(NNO(ISQ))}2(κ(1)-N;μ-N3](+), with a Pd-N-Pd angle close to 127° (X-ray). Magnetic and EPR measurements indicate two independent S = 1/2 spin carriers and no magnetic interaction in the solid state. The two diradical species both show no spin exchange in solution, likely because of unhindered rotation around the Pd-X-Pd core. This work demonstrates that a single bridging atom can induce subtle and tunable changes in structural and magnetic properties of novel dinuclear Pd complexes featuring two ligand-based radicals.