Electronic Tuning of Iron-Oxo-Mediated CH Activation: Effect of Electron-Donating Ligand on Selectivity

Monomeric Fe(III)-Hydroxo and Fe(III)-Aqua Complexes Display Oxidative Asynchronous Hydrogen Atom Abstraction Reactivity

This paper presents the synthesis and characterization of a series of novel monomeric aqua-ligated iron(III) complexes, [FeIII(L5R)(OH2)]2+ (R=OMe, H, Cl, NO2), supported by an amide-containing pentadentate N5 donor ligand, L5R [HL5R=2-(((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)methyl)(pyridin-2-yl-methyl)amino)-N-(5-R-quinolin-8-yl)acetamide]. The complexes were characterized by various spectroscopic and analytical techniques, including electrochemistry and magnetic measurements. The Fe(III)-hydroxo complexes, [FeIII(L5R)(OH)]1+, were generated in situ by deprotonating the corresponding aqua complexes in a pH ~7 aqueous medium. In another way, adding one equivalent of a base to a methanolic solution of the Fe(III)-aqua complexes also produced the Fe(III)-hydroxo complexes. The study uses linoleic fatty acid as a substrate to explore the hydrogen atom abstraction (HAA) reactivity of both hydroxo and aqua complexes. The investigation highlights the substitution effect of the L5R ligand on reactivity, revealing a higher rate when an electron-withdrawing group is present. Hammett analyses and(or) determination of the asynchronicity factor (η) suggest an oxidative asynchronous concerted proton-electron transfer (CPET) pathway for the HAA reactions. Aqua complexes exhibited a higher asynchronicity in CPET, resulting in higher reaction rates than their hydroxo analogs. Overall, the work provides insights into the beneficial role of a higher imbalance in electron-transfer-proton-transfer (ET-PT) contributions in HAA reactivity.

Acid Catalysis in the Oxidation of Substrates by Mononuclear Manganese(III)-Aqua Complexes

Acids are known to enhance the reactivities of metal-oxygen intermediates, such as metal-oxo, -hydroperoxo, -peroxo, and -superoxo complexes, in biomimetic oxidation reactions. Although metal-aqua (and metal-hydroxo) complexes have been shown to be potent oxidants in oxidation reactions, acid effects on the reactivities of metal-aqua complexes have never been investigated previously. In this study, a mononuclear manganese(III)-aqua complex, [(dpaq^5NO2)Mn^III(OH₂)]²⁺ (1; dpaq^5NO2 = 2-[bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)]amino-N-quinolin-8-ylacetamidate with an NO₂ substituent at the 5 position), which is relatively stable in the presence of triflic acid (HOTf), is used in the investigation of acid-catalyzed oxidation reactions by metal-aqua complexes. As a result, we report a remarkable acid catalysis in the six-electron oxidation of anthracene by 1 in the presence of HOTf; anthraquinone is formed as the product. In the HOTf-catalyzed six-electron oxidation of anthracene by 1, the rate constant increases linearly with an increase of the HOTf concentration. Combined with the observed one-electron oxidation product, anthracene (derivative) radical cation, and the substitution effect at the 5 position of the dpaq ligand in 1 on the rate constants of the oxidation of anthracene, it is concluded that the oxidation of anthracene occurs via an acid-promoted electron transfer (APET) from anthracene to 1. The dependence of the rate constants of the APET from electron donors, including anthracene derivatives, to 1 on the driving force of electron transfer is also shown to be well fitted by the Marcus equation of outer-sphere electron transfer. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example showing acid catalysis in the oxidation of substrates by metal(III)-aqua complexes.

Hydrocarbon Oxidation Depth: H2O2/Cu2Cl4·2DMG/CH3CN System

The oxidation of hydrocarbons of different structures under the same conditions is an important stage in the study of the chemical properties of both the hydrocarbons themselves and the oxidation catalysts. In a 50% H2O2/Cu2Cl4·2DMG/CH3CN system, where DMG is dimethylglyoxime (Butane-2,3-dione dioxime), at 50 °C under the same or similar conditions, we oxidized eleven RH hydrocarbons of different structures: mono-, bi- and tri-cyclic, framework and aromatic. To compare the composition of the oxidation products of these hydrocarbons, we introduced a new quantitative characteristic, “distributive oxidation depth D(O), %” and showed the effectiveness of its application. The adiabatic ionization potentials (AIP) and the vertical ionization potentials (VIP) of the molecules of eleven oxidized and related hydrocarbons were calculated using the DFT method in the B3LYP/TZVPP level of theory for comparison with experimental values and correlation with D(O). The same calculations of AIP were made for the molecules of the oxidant, solvent, DMG, related compounds and products. It is shown that component X, which determines the mechanism of oxidation of hydrocarbons RH with AIP(Exp) ≥ AIP(X) = 8.55 ± 0.03 eV, is a trans-DMG molecule. Firstly theoretically estimated experimental values of AIP(trans-DMG) = 8.53 eV and AIP(cis-DMG) = 8.27 eV.

Oxidative versus basic asynchronous hydrogen atom transfer reactions of Mn(III)-hydroxo and Mn(III)-aqua complexes

Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) of metal-oxygen intermediates such as metal-oxo, -hydroxo and -superoxo species have so far been studied extensively. However, HAT reactions of metal-aqua complexes have yet to be...

One-Stage Catalytic Oxidation of Adamantane to Tri-, Tetra-, and Penta-Ols

Tertiary tetraols of adamantane (C10H16, Tricyclo[3.3.1.1(3,7)]decan) have been widely used for the synthesis of highly symmetric compounds with unique physical and chemical properties. The methods for one-stage simultaneously selective, deep, and cheap oxidation of adamantane to tetraols of different structures have not yet been developed. In this research, chemically simple, cheap, and environmentally friendly reagents are used and that is the first step in this direction. The conditions, under which the impact of a hydrogen peroxide water solution on adamantane dissolved in acetonitrile results in full conversion of adamantane and formation of a total 72% mixture of its tri-, tetra-, and penta-oxygenated products, predominantly poliols, have been found. Conversion and adamantane oxidation depth are shown to depend on the ratio of components of the water-acetonitrile solution and the method of oxidizer solution introduction when using the dimer form of 1:1 dimethylglyoxime and copper dichloride complex as a catalyst. Under the conditions of mass-spectrometry ionization by electrons (70 eV), fragmentation across three C–C bonds of the molecular ions framework of adamantane tertiary alcohols Ad(OH)n in the range n = 0–4 increases linearly with the rise of n.

Ligand Taxonomy for Bioinorganic Modeling of Dioxygen-Activating Non-Heme Iron Enzymes

Novel functions emerge from novel structures. To develop efficient catalytic systems for challenging chemical transformations, chemists often seek inspirations from enzymatic catalysis. A large number of iron complexes supported by nitrogen-rich multidentate ligands have thus been developed to mimic oxo-transfer reactivity of dioxygen-activating metalloenzymes. Such efforts have significantly advanced our understanding of the reaction mechanisms by trapping key intermediates and elucidating their geometric and electronic properties. Critical to the success of this biomimetic approach is the design and synthesis of elaborate ligand systems to balance the thermodynamic stability, structural adaptability, and chemical reactivity. In this Concept article, representative design strategies for biomimetic atom-transfer chemistry are discussed from the perspectives of "ligand builders". Emphasis is placed on how the primary coordination sphere is constructed, and how it can be elaborated further by rational design for desired functions.

Metal complex catalysis in the chemistry of lower diamondoids

The review presents the first survey of published data on the use of compounds, complexes and nanoparticles of transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, V, Mo, Cu, Pd, Pt, Rh, Ru, Os, Au, Re and Th) in the catalytic transformations of lower diamondoids — adamantane, diamantane and their derivatives. Catalytic halogenation, oxidation, alkylation and cross-coupling reactions are considered, and the formation pathways of C–N, C–S and C–Se bonds in the series of adamantanoids are discussed. Reaction conditions, appropriate catalytic systems and the structures of products are presented.

The bibliography includes 242 references.

Structure and Reactivity of (μ-Oxo)dimanganese(III,III) and Mononuclear Hydroxomanganese(III) Adducts Supported by Derivatives of an Amide-Containing Pentadentate Ligand

Mononuclear Mn^III-hydroxo and dinuclear (μ-oxo)dimanganese(III,III) complexes were prepared using derivatives of the pentadentate, amide-containing dpaq ligand (dpaq = 2-[bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)]amino- N-quinolin-8-yl-acetamidate). Each of these ligand derivatives (referred to as dpaq^5R) contained a substituent R (where R = OMe, Cl, and NO₂) at the 5-position of the quinolinyl group. Generation of the Mn^III complexes was achieved by either O₂ oxidation of Mn^II precursors (for [Mn^II(dpaq^5OMe)]⁺ and [Mn^II(dpaq^5Cl)]⁺ or PhIO oxidation (for [Mn^II(dpaq^5NO₂)]⁺). For each oxidized complex, ¹H NMR experiments provided evidence of a water-dependent equilibrium between paramagnetic [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5R)]⁺ and an antiferromagnetically coupled [Mn^IIIMn^III(μ-O)(dpaq^5R)₂]²⁺ species in acetonitrile, with the addition of water favoring the Mn^III-hydroxo species. This conversion could also be monitored by electronic absorption spectroscopy. Solid-state X-ray crystal structures for each [Mn^IIIMn^III(μ-O)(dpaq^5R)₂](OTf)₂ complex revealed a nearly linear Mn-O-Mn core (angle of ca. 177°), with short Mn-O distances near 1.79 Å, and a Mn···Mn separation of 3.58 Å. X-ray crystallographic information was also obtained for the mononuclear [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5Cl)](OTf) complex, which has a short Mn-O(H) distance of 1.810(2) Å. The influence of the 5-substituted quinolinyl moiety on the electronic properties of the [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5R)]⁺ complexes was demonstrated through shifts in a number of ¹H NMR resonances, as well as a steady increase in the Mn^III/II cyclic voltammetry peak potential in the order [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5OMe)]⁺ < [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq)]⁺ < [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5Cl)]⁺ < [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5NO₂)]⁺. These changes in oxidizing power of the Mn^III-hydroxo adducts translated to only modest rate enhancements for TEMPOH oxidation by the [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5R)]⁺ complexes, with the most reactive [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5NO₂)]⁺ complex showing a second-order rate constant only 9-fold larger than that of the least reactive [Mn^III(OH)(dpaq^5OMe)]⁺ complex. These modest rate changes were understood on the basis of density functional theory (DFT)-computed p K_a values for the corresponding [Mn^II(OH₂)(dpaq^5R)]⁺ complexes. Collectively, the experimental and DFT results reveal that the 5-substituted quinolinyl groups have an inverse influence on electron and proton affinity for the Mn^III-hydroxo unit.

Systematic ligand variation to modulate the electrochemical properties of iron and manganese complexes

Systematic series of iron(+iii) and manganese(+ii) complexes are investigated by cyclic voltammetry to elucidate how the electronic properties of the ligands influence overpotential and catalytic current in the context of water oxidation catalysis.

Manganese-Oxygen Intermediates in O-O Bond Activation and Hydrogen-Atom Transfer Reactions

Biological systems capitalize on the redox versatility of manganese to perform reactions involving dioxygen and its derivatives superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and water. The reactions of manganese enzymes influence both human health and the global energy cycle. Important examples include the detoxification of reactive oxygen species by manganese superoxide dismutase, biosynthesis by manganese ribonucleotide reductase and manganese lipoxygenase, and water splitting by the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II. Although these enzymes perform very different reactions and employ structurally distinct active sites, manganese intermediates with peroxo, hydroxo, and oxo ligation are commonly proposed in catalytic mechanisms. These intermediates are also postulated in mechanisms of synthetic manganese oxidation catalysts, which are of interest due to the earth abundance of manganese. In this Account, we describe our recent efforts toward understanding O-O bond activation pathways of Mn^III-peroxo adducts and hydrogen-atom transfer reactivity of Mn^IV-oxo and Mn^III-hydroxo complexes. In biological and synthetic catalysts, peroxomanganese intermediates are commonly proposed to decay by either Mn-O or O-O cleavage pathways, although it is often unclear how the local coordination environment influences the decay mechanism. To address this matter, we generated a variety of Mn^III-peroxo adducts with varied ligand environments. Using parallel-mode EPR and Mn K-edge X-ray absorption techniques, the decay pathway of one Mn^III-peroxo complex bearing a bulky macrocylic ligand was investigated. Unlike many Mn^III-peroxo model complexes that decay to oxo-bridged-Mn^IIIMn^IV dimers, decay of this Mn^III-peroxo adduct yielded mononuclear Mn^III-hydroxo and Mn^IV-oxo products, potentially resulting from O-O bond activation of the Mn^III-peroxo unit. These results highlight the role of ligand sterics in promoting the formation of mononuclear products and mark an important step in designing Mn^III-peroxo complexes that convert cleanly to high-valent Mn-oxo species. Although some synthetic Mn^IV-oxo complexes show great potential for oxidizing substrates with strong C-H bonds, most Mn^IV-oxo species are sluggish oxidants. Both two-state reactivity and thermodynamic arguments have been put forth to explain these observations. To address these issues, we generated a series of Mn^IV-oxo complexes supported by neutral, pentadentate ligands with systematically perturbed equatorial donation. Kinetic investigations of these complexes revealed a correlation between equatorial ligand-field strength and hydrogen-atom and oxygen-atom transfer reactivity. While this trend can be understood on the basis of the two-state reactivity model, the reactivity trend also correlates with variations in Mn^III/IV reduction potential caused by changes in the ligand field. This work demonstrates the dramatic influence simple ligand perturbations can have on reactivity but also illustrates the difficulties in understanding the precise basis for a change in reactivity. In the enzyme manganese lipoxygenase, an active-site Mn^III-hydroxo adduct initiates substrate oxidation by abstracting a hydrogen atom from a C-H bond. Precedent for this chemistry from synthetic Mn^III-hydroxo centers is rare. To better understand hydrogen-atom transfer by Mn^III centers, we developed a pair of Mn^III-hydroxo complexes, formed in high yield from dioxygen oxidation of Mn^II precursors, capable of attacking weak O-H and C-H bonds. Kinetic and computational studies show a delicate interplay between thermodynamic and steric influences in hydrogen-atom transfer reactivity, underscoring the potential of Mn^III-hydroxo units as mild oxidants.

Selective C-H Bond Oxidation Catalyzed by the Fe-bTAML Complex: Mechanistic Implications

Nonheme iron complexes bearing tetradentate N-atom-donor ligands with cis labile sites show great promise for chemoselective aliphatic C-H hydroxylation. However, several challenges still limit their widespread application. We report a mechanism-guided development of a peroxidase mimicking iron complex based on the bTAML macrocyclic ligand framework (Fe-bTAML: biuret-modified tetraamido macrocyclic ligand) as a catalyst to perform selective oxidation of unactivated 3° bonds with unprecedented regioselectivity (3°:2° of 110:1 for adamantane oxidation), high stereoretention (99%), and turnover numbers (TONs) up to 300 using mCPBA as the oxidant. Ligand decomposition pathways involving acid-induced demetalation were identified, and this led to the development of more robust and efficient Fe-bTAML complexes that catalyzed chemoselective C-H oxidation. Mechanistic studies, which include correlation of the product formed with the Fe^V(O) reactive intermediates generated during the reaction, indicate that the major pathway involves the cleavage of C-H bonds by Fe^V(O). When these oxidations were performed in the presence of air, the yield of the oxidized product doubled, but the stereoretention remained unchanged. On the basis of ¹⁸O labeling and other mechanistic studies, we propose a mechanism that involves the dual activation of mCPBA and O₂ by Fe-bTAML, leading to formation of the Fe^V(O) intermediate. This high-valent iron oxo remains the active intermediate for most of the reaction, resulting in high regio- and stereoselectivity during product formation.

Steric and Electronic Influence on Proton-Coupled Electron-Transfer Reactivity of a Mononuclear Mn(III)-Hydroxo Complex

A mononuclear hydroxomanganese(III) complex was synthesized utilizing the N5 amide-containing ligand 2-[bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)]amino-N-2-methyl-quinolin-8-yl-acetamidate (dpaq(2Me) ). This complex is similar to previously reported [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(H))](+) [Inorg. Chem. 2014, 53, 7622-7634] but contains a methyl group adjacent to the hydroxo moiety. This α-methylquinoline group in [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(2Me))](+) gives rise to a 0.1 Å elongation in the Mn-N(quinoline) distance relative to [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(H))](+). Similar bond elongation is observed in the corresponding Mn(II) complex. In MeCN, [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(2Me))](+) reacts rapidly with 2,2',6,6'-tetramethylpiperidine-1-ol (TEMPOH) at -35 °C by a concerted proton-electron transfer (CPET) mechanism (second-order rate constant k2 of 3.9(3) M(-1) s(-1)). Using enthalpies and entropies of activation from variable-temperature studies of TEMPOH oxidation by [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(2Me))](+) (ΔH(‡) = 5.7(3) kcal(-1) M(-1); ΔS(‡) = -41(1) cal M(-1) K(-1)), it was determined that [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(2Me))](+) oxidizes TEMPOH ∼240 times faster than [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(H))](+). The [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(2Me))](+) complex is also capable of oxidizing the stronger O-H and C-H bonds of 2,4,6-tri-tert-butylphenol and xanthene, respectively. However, for these reactions [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(2Me))](+) displays, at best, modest rate enhancement relative to [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(H))](+). A combination of density function theory (DFT) and cyclic voltammetry studies establish an increase in the Mn(III)/Mn(II) reduction potential of [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(2Me))](+) relative to [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(H))](+), which gives rise to a larger driving force for CPET for the former complex. Thus, more favorable thermodynamics for [Mn(III)(OH)(dpaq(2Me))](+) can account for the dramatic increase in rate with TEMPOH. For the more sterically encumbered substrates, DFT computations suggest that this effect is mitigated by unfavorable steric interactions between the substrate and the α-methylquinoline group of the dpaq(2Me) ligand. The DFT calculations, which reproduce the experimental activation free energies quite well, provide the first examination of the transition-state structure of mononuclear Mn(III)(OH) species during a CPET reaction.

Analyzing sites of OH radical attack (ring vs. side chain) in oxidation of substituted benzenes via dual stable isotope analysis (δ(13)C and δ(2)H)

OH radicals generated by the photolysis of H2O2 can degrade aromatic contaminants by either attacking the aromatic ring to form phenolic products or oxidizing the substituent. We characterized these competing pathways by analyzing the carbon and hydrogen isotope fractionation (εC and εH) of various substituted benzenes. For benzene and halobenzenes that only undergo ring addition, low values of εC (-0.7‰ to -1.0‰) were observed compared with theoretical values (-7.2‰ to -8‰), possibly owing to masking effect caused by pre-equilibrium between the substrate and OH radical preceding the rate-limiting step. In contrast, the addition of OH radicals to nitrobenzene ring showed a higher εC (-3.9‰), probably due to the lower reactivity. Xylene isomers, anisole, aniline, N,N-dimethylaniline, and benzonitrile yielded normal εH values (-2.8‰ to -29‰) indicating the occurrence of side-chain reactions, in contrast to the inverse εH (11.7‰ to 30‰) observed for ring addition due to an sp(2) to sp(3) hybridization change at the reacting carbon. Inverse εH values for toluene (14‰) and ethylbenzene (30‰) were observed despite the formation of side-chain oxidation products, suggesting that ring addition has a larger contribution to isotope fractionation. Dual element isotope slopes (∆δ(2)H/∆δ(13)C) therefore allow identification of significant degradation pathways of aromatic compounds by photochemically induced OH radicals. Issues that should be addressed in future studies include quantitative determination of the contribution of each competing pathway to the observed isotope fractionation and characterization of physical processes preceding the reaction that could affect isotope fractionation.

C-H Bond Oxidation Catalyzed by an Imine-Based Iron Complex: A Mechanistic Insight

A family of imine-based nonheme iron(II) complexes (LX)2Fe(OTf)2 has been prepared, characterized, and employed as C-H oxidation catalysts. Ligands LX (X = 1, 2, 3, and 4) stand for tridentate imine ligands resulting from spontaneous condensation of 2-pycolyl-amine and 4-substituted-2-picolyl aldehydes. Fast and quantitative formation of the complex occurs just upon mixing aldehyde, amine, and Fe(OTf)2 in a 2:2:1 ratio in acetonitrile solution. The solid-state structures of (L1)2Fe(OTf)(ClO4) and (L3)2Fe(OTf)2 are reported, showing a low-spin octahedral iron center, with the ligands arranged in a meridional fashion. (1)H NMR analyses indicate that the solid-state structure and spin state is retained in solution. These analyses also show the presence of an amine-imine tautomeric equilibrium. (LX)2Fe(OTf)2 efficiently catalyze the oxidation of alkyl C-H bonds employing H2O2 as a terminal oxidant. Manipulation of the electronic properties of the imine ligand has only a minor impact on efficiency and selectivity of the oxidative process. A mechanistic study is presented, providing evidence that C-H oxidations are metal-based. Reactions occur with stereoretention at the hydroxylated carbon and selectively at tertiary over secondary C-H bonds. Isotopic labeling analyses show that H2O2 is the dominant origin of the oxygen atoms inserted in the oxygenated product. Experimental evidence is provided that reactions involve initial oxidation of the complexes to the ferric state, and it is proposed that a ligand arm dissociates to enable hydrogen peroxide binding and activation. Selectivity patterns and isotopic labeling studies strongly suggest that activation of hydrogen peroxide occurs by heterolytic O-O cleavage, without the assistance of a cis-binding water or alkyl carboxylic acid. The sum of these observations provides sound evidence that controlled activation of H2O2 at (LX)2Fe(OTf)2 differs from that occurring in biomimetic iron catalysts described to date.

Molecular iron complexes as catalysts for selective C–H bond oxygenation reactions

This feature article summarises recent developments in homogeneous C–H bond oxygenation catalysed by molecular iron complexes.

Isocyanide substitution reactions at the trans labile sites of an iron(ii) N-heterocyclic carbene complex

A variety of isocyanide-substituted Fe(ii) N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes has been synthesized, starting from an Fe(ii) NHC complex with an equatorial, tetradentate bis(pyridyl-NHC) ligand (NCCN).

Mononuclear nonheme iron(iii) complexes that show superoxide dismutase-like activity and antioxidant effects against menadione-mediated oxidative stress

Iron(iii) complexes with pentadentate monocarboxylamido ligands display excellent SOD-like antioxidant activity to reduce superoxide radicals in cultured cells.