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Dočekal V, Koucký F, Císařová I, Veselý J. Organocatalytic desymmetrization provides access to planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophanes. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3090. [PMID: 38600078 PMCID: PMC11006895 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47407-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophanes consist of two functionalized benzene rings connected by two ethylene bridges. These organic compounds have a wide range of applications in asymmetric synthesis, as both ligands and catalysts, and in materials science, as polymers, energy materials and dyes. However, these molecules can only be accessed by enantiomer separation via (a) time-consuming chiral separations and (b) kinetic resolution approaches, often with a limited substrate scope, yielding both enantiomers. Here, we report a simple, efficient, metal-free protocol for organocatalytic desymmetrization of prochiral diformyl[2.2]paracyclophanes. Our detailed experimental mechanistic study highlights differences in the origin of enantiocontrol of pseudo-para and pseudo-gem diformyl derivatives in NHC catalyzed desymmetrizations based on whether a key Breslow intermediate is irreversibly or reversibly formed in this process. This gram-scale reaction enables a wide range of follow-up derivatizations of carbonyl groups, producing various enantiomerically pure planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophane derivatives, thereby underscoring the potential of this method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojtěch Dočekal
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030/8, 128 43, Prague, 2, Czech Republic.
| | - Filip Koucký
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030/8, 128 43, Prague, 2, Czech Republic
| | - Ivana Císařová
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030/8, 128 43, Prague, 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Veselý
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030/8, 128 43, Prague, 2, Czech Republic.
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2
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Mann A, Hannigan MD, Dumlao BL, Hu CT, Weck M. Bent and Twisted: Synthesis of an Alkoxy-Substituted (1,5)Naphthalene-paracyclophanediene. J Org Chem 2023; 88:12971-12977. [PMID: 37647456 PMCID: PMC10507662 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.3c00880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
This contribution describes the synthesis of [2.2](1,5)naphthalenoparacyclophane-1,13-diene in four steps from 1,5-bis(bromomethyl)naphthalene and 1,4-benzenedimethanethiol. Consisting of 2,6-dioctyloxynaphthalene and benzene moieties, the effects of differing arene size on the structure, strain energy, and chemical reactivity of the cyclophanediene are examined. Despite a strain energy of 24.3 kcal/mol, the naphthalenoparacyclophanediene was unreactive toward a library of olefin metathesis catalysts. This diminished reactivity can be explained by the steric hindrance of the twisted olefin. Incorporation of an electron donor (naphthalene) into the rigid paracyclophanediene structure can allow for applications in optoelectronics, chiral ligands, and planar chiral materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arielle Mann
- Department of Chemistry and
Molecular Design Institute, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Matthew D. Hannigan
- Department of Chemistry and
Molecular Design Institute, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Bianca L. Dumlao
- Department of Chemistry and
Molecular Design Institute, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Chunhua T. Hu
- Department of Chemistry and
Molecular Design Institute, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Marcus Weck
- Department of Chemistry and
Molecular Design Institute, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
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3
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Paradies J. Structure-Reactivity Relationships in Borane-Based FLP-Catalyzed Hydrogenations, Dehydrogenations, and Cycloisomerizations. Acc Chem Res 2023; 56:821-834. [PMID: 36913645 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/15/2023]
Abstract
ConspectusThe activation of molecular hydrogen by main-group element catalysts is an extremely important approach to metal-free hydrogenations. These so-called frustrated Lewis pairs advanced within a short period of time to become an alternative to transition metal catalysis. However, deep understanding of the structure-reactivity relationship is far less developed compared to that of transition metal complexes, although it is paramount for advancing frustrated Lewis pair chemistry.In this Account, we provide detailed insight into how Lewis acidity and Lewis basicity correlate to reactivity. The reactivity of frustrated Lewis pairs will be systematically discussed in context with selected reactions. The influence of major electronic modifications of the Lewis pairs is correlated with the ability to activate molecular hydrogen, to channel reaction kinetics and reaction pathways, or to achieve C(sp3)-H activations.First, we will describe how we entered this emerging field of research after quickly realizing that information was lacking on how the reactivity changes with modification of the frustrated Lewis pair. This led us to the development of a qualitative and quantitative structure-reactivity relationship in metal-free imine hydrogenations. The imine hydrogenation was utilized as the model reaction to experimentally determine the activation parameters of the FLP-mediated hydrogen activation for the first time. This kinetic study revealed autoinduced catalytic profiles when Lewis acids weaker than tris(pentafluorophenyl)borane were applied, opening up to study the Lewis base dependency within one system. With this knowledge of the interplay between Lewis acid strength and Lewis basicity, we developed methods for the hydrogenation of densely functionalized nitroolefins, acrylates, and malonates. Here, the reduced Lewis acidity needed to be counterbalanced by a suitable Lewis base to ensure efficient hydrogen activation. The opposite measure was necessary for the hydrogenation of unactivated olefins. For these, comparably less electron-releasing phosphanes were required to generate strong Brønsted acids by hydrogen activation. These systems displayed highly reversible hydrogen activation even at temperatures as low as -60 °C. A systematic study of these systems enabled the development of acceptorless dehydrocouplings of amines with silanes and dehydrogenations of aza-heterocycles by C(sp3)-H activations. Furthermore, the C(sp3)-H and π-activation was utilized to achieve cycloisomerizations by carbon-carbon and carbon-nitrogen bond formations. Lastly, new frustrated Lewis pair systems featuring weak Lewis bases as active components in the hydrogen activation were developed for the reductive deoxygenation of phosphane oxides and carboxylic acid amides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Paradies
- Chemistry Department, Paderborn University, Warburger Strasse 100, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
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4
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Dahlen M, Seifert TP, Lebedkin S, Gamer MT, Kappes MM, Roesky PW. Tetra- and hexanuclear string complexes of the coinage metals. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:13146-13149. [PMID: 34807965 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc06034a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Reaction of the PNNP ligand system N,N'-bis[(2-diphenylphosphino)phenyl]formamidinate (dpfam) featuring different coordination compartments with [AuCl(tht)], [CuMes]5, [AgMes]4, or [AuC6F5(tht)] (tht = tetrahydrothiophene) resulted in tetranuclear homo- and heterometallic coinage metal complexes, as well as a hexanuclear gold complex. All of them feature a metal string conformation. Photophysical investigation revealed a significant dependence of the photoluminescence properties on the metal composition. Below 100 K, the PL efficiency of three compounds approaches nearly 100%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Dahlen
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Engesserstr. 15, Karlsruhe 76131, Germany.
| | - Tim P Seifert
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Engesserstr. 15, Karlsruhe 76131, Germany.
| | - Sergei Lebedkin
- Institute of Nanotechnology Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany
| | - Michael T Gamer
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Engesserstr. 15, Karlsruhe 76131, Germany.
| | - Manfred M Kappes
- Institute of Nanotechnology Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany.,Institute of Physical Chemistry Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Fritz-Haber-Weg 2, Karlsruhe 76131, Germany
| | - Peter W Roesky
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Engesserstr. 15, Karlsruhe 76131, Germany.
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Hofmann D, Garg N, Grässle S, Vanderheiden S, Bergheim BG, Bräse S, Jung N, Özbek S. A small molecule screen identifies novel inhibitors of mechanosensory nematocyst discharge in Hydra. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20627. [PMID: 34663887 PMCID: PMC8523708 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99974-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Cnidarians are characterized by the possession of stinging organelles, called nematocysts, which they use for prey capture and defense. Nematocyst discharge is controlled by a mechanosensory apparatus with analogies to vertebrate hair cells. Members of the transient receptor potential (TRPN) ion channel family are supposed to be involved in the transduction of the mechanical stimulus. A small molecule screen was performed to identify compounds that affect nematocyst discharge in Hydra. We identified several [2.2]paracyclophanes that cause inhibition of nematocyst discharge in the low micro-molar range. Further structure–activity analyses within the compound class of [2.2]paracyclophanes showed common features that are required for the inhibitory activity of the [2.2]paracyclophane core motif. This study demonstrates that Hydra can serve as a model for small molecule screens targeting the mechanosensory apparatus in native tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Hofmann
- Department of Molecular Evolution and Genomics, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 230, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Niharika Garg
- Department of Molecular Evolution and Genomics, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 230, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Simone Grässle
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems - Functional Molecular Systems (IBCS-FMS), Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Sylvia Vanderheiden
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems - Functional Molecular Systems (IBCS-FMS), Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber-Weg 6, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Bruno Gideon Bergheim
- Department of Molecular Evolution and Genomics, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 230, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Bräse
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems - Functional Molecular Systems (IBCS-FMS), Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber-Weg 6, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Nicole Jung
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems - Functional Molecular Systems (IBCS-FMS), Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany. .,Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber-Weg 6, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Suat Özbek
- Department of Molecular Evolution and Genomics, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 230, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
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6
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Zippel C, Bartholomeyzik T, Friedmann C, Nieger M, Hassan Z, Bräse S. Regioselective
ortho
‐Palladation of [2.2]Paracyclophane Scaffolds: Accessing Planar and Central Chiral N,C‐Palladacycles. European J Org Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202101066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Zippel
- Institute of Organic Chemistry (IOC) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Fritz-Haber-Weg 6 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
| | - Teresa Bartholomeyzik
- Institute of Organic Chemistry (IOC) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Fritz-Haber-Weg 6 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
| | - Christian Friedmann
- Institute of Organic Chemistry (IOC) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Fritz-Haber-Weg 6 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
| | - Martin Nieger
- Department of Chemistry University of Helsinki P. O. Box 55 00014 Helsinki Finland
| | - Zahid Hassan
- Institute of Organic Chemistry (IOC) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Fritz-Haber-Weg 6 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
| | - Stefan Bräse
- Institute of Organic Chemistry (IOC) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Fritz-Haber-Weg 6 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems – Functional Molecular Systems (IBCS-FMS) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
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7
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New Paracyclophanylthiazoles with Anti-Leukemia Activity: Design, Synthesis, Molecular Docking, and Mechanistic Studies. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25133089. [PMID: 32645912 PMCID: PMC7411887 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25133089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A new series of methyl 2-(2-(4′-[2.2]paracyclophanyl)-hydrazinylidene)-3-substituted-4-oxothiazolidin-5-ylidene)acetates 3a–f were synthesized from the reaction of paracyclophanyl-acylthiosemicarbazides 2a–f with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate. Based upon nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), infrared (IR), and mass spectra (HRMS), the structure of the obtained products was elucidated. X-ray structure analysis was also used as unambiguous tool to elucidate the structure of the products. The target compounds 3a–f were screened against 60 cancer cell lines. They displayed anticancer activity against a leukemia subpanel, namely, RPMI-8226 and SR cell lines. The activity of compound 3a was found as the most cytotoxic potency against 60 cancer cell lines. Consequently, it was selected for further five doses analysis according to National Cancer Institute (NCI) protocol. The cytotoxic effect showed selectivity ratios ranging between 0.63 and 1.28 and between 0.58 and 5.89 at the GI50 and total growth inhibition (TGI) levels, respectively. Accordingly, compound 3a underwent further mechanistic study against the most sensitive leukemia RPMI-8226 and SR cell lines. It showed antiproliferation with IC50 = 1.61 ± 0.04 and 1.11 ± 0.03 µM against RPMI-8226 and SR cell lines, respectively. It also revealed a remarkable tubulin inhibitory activity, compared to colchicine with IC50 = 4.97 µM/mL. Caspase-3, BAX, and Bcl-2 assays for 3a using annexin V-FITC staining revealed significant pro-apoptotic activity. Furthermore, multidrug-resistant leukemia SR cells were used to show better resistance indices (1.285 ng/mL, 1.15-fold) than the reference. Docking studies with β-tubulin indicate that most of the tested compounds illustrated good binding at the colchicine binding site of the enzyme, especially for compound 3a, which made several interactions better than that of the reference colchicine.
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9
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Hassan Z, Spuling E, Knoll DM, Lahann J, Bräse S. Planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophanes: from synthetic curiosity to applications in asymmetric synthesis and materials. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:6947-6963. [PMID: 30065985 DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00803a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophane-based ligands and employment of such enantiopure representative ligands to facilitate selective transformation of prochiral or racemic substances into enantiopure products are rarely explored compared to the complex chiral scaffolds such as ferrocenes. This tutorial discusses recent findings and inspiring progress in design, synthetic tunability and applications of planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophane systems as a practical class of catalysts for asymmetric synthesis. Here, we summarize a series of planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophanes that are becoming an important new tool-box in asymmetric synthesis, employed in a variety of synthetic venues such as new chiral ligands and catalysts for stereo-controlled and enantioselective addition of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl and aryl zinc reagents to aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes, ketones, imines and many more. Besides, planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophanes are useful synthons, from a material perspective, can be incorporated into conjugated polymeric systems for chiroptical and optoelectronic properties, find broad applications in bio- and materials science, for instance, gold-based cytostatics, surface-mounted chiral MOF thin films for selective adsorption or in functionalized parylene polymer coatings, to name a few. This is an up-to-date tutorial review, written exclusively on planar chiral [2.2]paracyclophane chemistry, covering key aspects of synthesis, structures, properties, applications and future directions of chiral polymeric assemblies and novel biomaterials built with [2.2]paracyclophanes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahid Hassan
- Institute for Organic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Fritz-Haber-Weg 6, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany.
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Mungalpara MN, Wang J, Coles MP, Plieger PG, Rowlands GJ. The synthesis of a [2.2]paracyclophane-derived secondary phosphine oxide and a study of its reactivity. Tetrahedron 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2018.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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11
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Medicinal Applications of Gold(I/III)-Based Complexes Bearing N-Heterocyclic Carbene and Phosphine Ligands. J Organomet Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2018.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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12
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Kaczmarek R, Korczyński D, Królewska‐Golińska K, Wheeler KA, Chavez FA, Mikus A, Dembinski R. Organometallic Nucleosides: Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Substituted Dicobalt Hexacarbonyl 2'-Deoxy-5-oxopropynyluridines. ChemistryOpen 2018; 7:237-247. [PMID: 29531887 PMCID: PMC5838391 DOI: 10.1002/open.201700168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Reactions of dicobalt octacarbonyl [Co2(CO)8] with 2'-deoxy-5-oxopropynyluridines and related compounds gave dicobalt hexacarbonyl nucleoside complexes (83-31 %). The synthetic outcomes were confirmed by X-ray structure determination of dicobalt hexacarbonyl 2'-deoxy-5-(4-hydroxybut-1-yn-1-yl)uridine, which exhibits intermolecular hydrogen bonding between a modified base and ribose. The electronic structure of this compound was characterized by the DFT calculations. The growth inhibition of HeLa and K562 cancer cell lines by organometallic nucleosides was examined and compared to that by alkynyl nucleoside precursors. Coordination of the dicobalt carbonyl moiety to the 2'-deoxy-5-alkynyluridines led to a significant increase in the cytotoxic potency. The cobalt compounds displayed antiproliferative activities with median inhibitory values (IC50) in the range of 20 to 80 μm for the HeLa cell line and 18 to 30 μm for the K562 cell line. Coordination of an acetyl-substituted cobalt nucleoside was expanded by using the 1,1-bis(diphenylphosphino)methane (dppm) ligand, which exhibited cytotoxicity at comparable levels. The formation of reactive oxygen species in the presence of cobalt compounds was determined in K562 cells. The results indicate that the mechanism of action for most antiproliferative cobalt compounds may be related to the induction of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Kaczmarek
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryCentre of Molecular and Macromolecular StudiesPolish Academy of SciencesSienkiewicza 11290–363ŁódźPoland
| | - Dariusz Korczyński
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryCentre of Molecular and Macromolecular StudiesPolish Academy of SciencesSienkiewicza 11290–363ŁódźPoland
| | - Karolina Królewska‐Golińska
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryCentre of Molecular and Macromolecular StudiesPolish Academy of SciencesSienkiewicza 11290–363ŁódźPoland
| | - Kraig A. Wheeler
- Department of ChemistryWhitworth University300 W. Hawthorne Rd.SpokaneWA99251USA
| | - Ferman A. Chavez
- Department of ChemistryOakland University146 Library DriveRochesterMI48309-4479USA
| | - Agnieszka Mikus
- Department of ChemistryOakland University146 Library DriveRochesterMI48309-4479USA
| | - Roman Dembinski
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryCentre of Molecular and Macromolecular StudiesPolish Academy of SciencesSienkiewicza 11290–363ŁódźPoland
- Department of ChemistryOakland University146 Library DriveRochesterMI48309-4479USA
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Jayasundera KP, Engels TGW, Lun DJ, Mungalpara MN, Plieger PG, Rowlands GJ. The synthesis of planar chiral pseudo-gem aminophosphine pre-ligands based on [2.2]paracyclophane. Org Biomol Chem 2017; 15:8975-8984. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ob02393f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
We have synthesized three pseudo-gem [2.2]paracyclophane-derived P,N-ligands and report preliminary activity studies for the amination of aryl bromides and chlorides.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tim G. W. Engels
- Institute of Fundamental Sciences
- Massey University
- Palmerston North
- New Zealand
- Fontys University of Applied Science
| | - David J. Lun
- Institute of Fundamental Sciences
- Massey University
- Palmerston North
- New Zealand
| | | | - Paul G. Plieger
- Institute of Fundamental Sciences
- Massey University
- Palmerston North
- New Zealand
| | - Gareth J. Rowlands
- Institute of Fundamental Sciences
- Massey University
- Palmerston North
- New Zealand
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