The MarR family regulator RmaH mediates acid tolerance of Lactococcus lactis through regulating peptidoglycan modification genes

Lactococcus lactis, widely used in the food fermentation industry, has developed various ways to regulate acid adaptation in the process of evolution. The investigation into how peptidoglycan (PG) senses and responds to acid stress is an expanding field. Here, we addressed the regulation of murT-gatD genes which are responsible for the amidation of PG D-Glu. We found that lactic acid stress reduced murT-gatD expression, and overexpressing these genes notably decreased acid tolerance of L. lactis NZ9000, possibly due to a reduction in PG's negative charge, facilitating the influx of extracellular protons into the cell. Subsequently, using a combination of DNA pull-down assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), we identified a novel MarR family regulator, RmaH, as an activator of murT-gatD transcription. Further MEME motif prediction, EMSA verification and fluorescent protein reporter assay showed that RmaH directly bound to the DNA motif 5'-KGVAWWTTTTGCT-3' located in the upstream region of murT-gatD. Beyond the mechanistic investigation of RmaH activation of murT-gatD, this study provides new insight into how peptidoglycan modification is regulated and responds to lactic acid stress.

A modified BCG with depletion of enzymes associated with peptidoglycan amidation induces enhanced protection against tuberculosis in mice

Mechanisms by which Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) evades pathogen recognition receptor activation during infection may offer insights for the development of improved tuberculosis (TB) vaccines. Whilst Mtb elicits NOD-2 activation through host recognition of its peptidoglycan-derived muramyl dipeptide (MDP), it masks the endogenous NOD-1 ligand through amidation of glutamate at the second position in peptidoglycan side-chains. As the current BCG vaccine is derived from pathogenic mycobacteria, a similar situation prevails. To alleviate this masking ability and to potentially improve efficacy of the BCG vaccine, we used CRISPRi to inhibit expression of the essential enzyme pair, MurT-GatD, implicated in amidation of peptidoglycan side-chains. We demonstrate that depletion of these enzymes results in reduced growth, cell wall defects, increased susceptibility to antibiotics, altered spatial localization of new peptidoglycan and increased NOD-1 expression in macrophages. In cell culture experiments, training of a human monocyte cell line with this recombinant BCG yielded improved control of Mtb growth. In the murine model of TB infection, we demonstrate that depletion of MurT-GatD in BCG, which is expected to unmask the D-glutamate diaminopimelate (iE-DAP) NOD-1 ligand, yields superior prevention of TB disease compared to the standard BCG vaccine. In vitro and in vivo experiments in this study demonstrate the feasibility of gene regulation platforms such as CRISPRi to alter antigen presentation in BCG in a bespoke manner that tunes immunity towards more effective protection against TB disease.

Exploring the immunogenicity of Rv2201-519: A T-cell epitope-based antigen derived from Mycobacterium tuberculosis AsnB with implications for tuberculosis infection detection and vaccine development

Research dedicated to diagnostic reagents and vaccine development for tuberculosis (TB) is challenging due to the paucity of immunodominant antigens that can predict disease risk and exhibit protective potential. Therefore, it is crucial to identify T-cell epitope-based Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) antigens characterized by specific and prominent recognition by the immune system. In this study, we constructed a T-cell epitope-rich tripeptide-splicing fragment (nucleotide positions 131-194, 334-377, and 579-643) of Rv2201 (also known as the 72 kDa AsnB)from the MTB genome, ultimately yielding the recombinant protein Rv2201-519 in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). Subsequently, we gauged the recombinant protein's ability to detect tuberculosis infection through ELISpot and assessed its immunostimulatory effect on mouse models using flow cytometry and ELISA. Our results indicated that Rv2201-519 possessed promising sensitivity; however, the sensitivity was lower than that of a commercial diagnostic kit containing ESAT-6, CFP-10, and Rv3615c (80.56 % vs. 94.44 %). The Rv2201-519 group exhibited a propensity for a CD4+ Th1 cell immune response in inoculated BALB/c mice that manifested as higher levels of antigen-specific IgG production (IgG2a/IgG1 > 1). In comparison to Ag85B, Rv2201-519 induced a more robust Th1-type cellular immune response as evidenced by a notable rise in the ratio of IFN-γ/IL-4 and IL-12 cytokine production and increased CD4+ T cell activation with a higher percentage of CD4+IFN-γ+ T cells. Rv2201-519 also induced a higher level of IL-6 compared with Ag85B, a higher percentage of CD8+ T cells specific for Rv2201-519, and a lower percentage of CD8+IL-4+ T cells. Collectively, the current evidence suggests that Rv2201-519 could potentially serve as an immunodominant protein for tuberculosis infection screening, laying the groundwork for further evaluation in recombinant Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) and subunit vaccines against MTB challenges in future studies.

In silico MS/MS prediction for peptidoglycan profiling uncovers novel anti-inflammatory peptidoglycan fragments of the gut microbiota

Peptidoglycan is an essential exoskeletal polymer across all bacteria. Gut microbiota-derived peptidoglycan fragments (PGNs) are increasingly recognized as key effector molecules that impact host biology. However, the current peptidoglycan analysis workflow relies on laborious manual identification from tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) data, impeding the discovery of novel bioactive PGNs in the gut microbiota. In this work, we built a computational tool PGN_MS2 that reliably simulates MS/MS spectra of PGNs and integrated it into the user-defined MS library of in silico PGN search space, facilitating automated PGN identification. Empowered by PGN_MS2, we comprehensively profiled gut bacterial peptidoglycan composition. Strikingly, the probiotic Bifidobacterium spp. manifests an abundant amount of the 1,6-anhydro-MurNAc moiety that is distinct from Gram-positive bacteria. In addition to biochemical characterization of three putative lytic transglycosylases (LTs) that are responsible for anhydro-PGN production in Bifidobacterium, we established that these 1,6-anhydro-PGNs exhibit potent anti-inflammatory activity in vitro, offering novel insights into Bifidobacterium-derived PGNs as molecular signals in gut microbiota-host crosstalk.

Measurement of Accumulation of Antibiotics to Staphylococcus aureus in Phagosomes of Live Macrophages

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) has evolved the ability to persist after uptake into host immune cells. This intracellular niche enables S. aureus to potentially escape host immune responses and survive the lethal actions of antibiotics. While the elevated tolerance of S. aureus to small-molecule antibiotics is likely to be multifactorial, we pose that there may be contributions related to permeation of antibiotics into phagocytic vacuoles, which would require translocation across two mammalian bilayers. To empirically test this, we adapted our recently developed permeability assay to determine the accumulation of FDA-approved antibiotics into phagocytic vacuoles of live macrophages. Bioorthogonal reactive handles were metabolically anchored within the surface of S. aureus, and complementary tags were chemically added to antibiotics. Following phagocytosis of tagged S. aureus cells, we were able to specifically analyze the arrival of antibiotics within the phagosomes of infected macrophages. Our findings enabled the determination of permeability differences between extra- and intracellular S. aureus, thus providing a roadmap to dissect the contribution of antibiotic permeability to intracellular pathogens.

Measurement of Accumulation of Antibiotics to Staphylococcus aureus in Phagosomes of Live Macrophages

Staphylococcus aureus ( S. aureus ) has evolved the ability to persist after uptake into host immune cells. This intracellular niche enables S. aureus to potentially escape host immune responses and survive the lethal actions of antibiotics. While the elevated tolerance of S. aureus to small-molecule antibiotics is likely to be multifactorial, we pose that there may be contributions related to permeation of antibiotics into phagocytic vacuoles, which would require translocation across two mammalian bilayers. To empirically test this, we adapted our recently developed permeability assay to determine the accumulation of FDA-approved antibiotics into phagocytic vacuoles of live macrophages. Bioorthogonal reactive handles were metabolically anchored within the surface of S. aureus, and complementary tags were chemically added to antibiotics. Following phagocytosis of tagged S. aureus cells, we were able to specifically analyze the arrival of antibiotics within the phagosomes of infected macrophages. Our findings enabled the determination of permeability differences between extra- and intracellular S. aureus , thus providing a roadmap to dissect the contribution of antibiotic permeability to intracellular pathogens.

Amidation of glutamate residues in mycobacterial peptidoglycan is essential for cell wall cross-linking

Introduction

Mycobacteria assemble a complex cell wall with cross-linked peptidoglycan (PG) which plays an essential role in maintenance of cell wall integrity and tolerance to osmotic pressure. We previously demonstrated that various hydrolytic enzymes are required to remodel PG during essential processes such as cell elongation and septal hydrolysis. Here, we explore the chemistry associated with PG cross-linking, specifically the requirement for amidation of the D-glutamate residue found in PG precursors.

Methods

Synthetic fluorescent probes were used to assess PG remodelling dynamics in live bacteria. Fluorescence microscopy was used to assess protein localization in live bacteria and CRISPR-interference was used to construct targeted gene knockdown strains. Time-lapse microscopy was used to assess bacterial growth. Western blotting was used to assess protein phosphorylation.

Results and discussion

In Mycobacterium smegmatis, we confirmed the essentiality for D-glutamate amidation in PG biosynthesis by labelling cells with synthetic fluorescent PG probes carrying amidation modifications. We also used CRISPRi targeted knockdown of genes encoding the MurT-GatD complex, previously implicated in D-glutamate amidation, and demonstrated that these genes are essential for mycobacterial growth. We show that MurT-rseGFP co-localizes with mRFP-GatD at the cell poles and septum, which are the sites of cell wall synthesis in mycobacteria. Furthermore, time-lapse microscopic analysis of MurT-rseGFP localization, in fluorescent D-amino acid (FDAA)-labelled mycobacterial cells during growth, demonstrated co-localization with maturing PG, suggestive of a role for PG amidation during PG remodelling and repair. Depletion of MurT and GatD caused reduced PG cross-linking and increased sensitivity to lysozyme and β-lactam antibiotics. Cell growth inhibition was found to be the result of a shutdown of PG biosynthesis mediated by the serine/threonine protein kinase B (PknB) which senses uncross-linked PG. Collectively, these data demonstrate the essentiality of D-glutamate amidation in mycobacterial PG precursors and highlight the MurT-GatD complex as a novel drug target.

A Metabolic-Tag-Based Method for Assessing the Permeation of Small Molecules Across the Mycomembrane in Live Mycobacteria

The general lack of permeability of small molecules observed for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is most ascribed to its unique cell envelope. More specifically, the outer mycomembrane is hypothesized to be the principal determinant for access of antibiotics to their molecular targets. We describe a novel assay that combines metabolic tagging of the peptidoglycan, which sits directly beneath the mycomembrane, click chemistry of test molecules, and a fluorescent labeling chase step, to measure the permeation of small molecules. We showed that the assay workflow was robust and compatible with high-throughput analysis in mycobacteria by testing a small panel of azide-tagged molecules. The general trend is similar across the two types of mycobacteria with some notable exceptions. We anticipate that this assay platform will lay the foundation for medicinal chemistry efforts to understand and improve uptake of both existing drugs and newly-discovered compounds into mycobacteria.

A modified BCG with depletion of enzymes associated with peptidoglycan amidation induces enhanced protection against tuberculosis in mice

Mechanisms by which Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) evades pathogen recognition receptor activation during infection may offer insights for the development of improved tuberculosis (TB) vaccines. Whilst Mtb elicits NOD-2 activation through host recognition of its peptidoglycan-derived muramyl dipeptide (MDP), it masks the endogenous NOD-1 ligand through amidation of glutamate at the second position in peptidoglycan sidechains. As the current BCG vaccine is derived from pathogenic mycobacteria, a similar situation prevails. To alleviate this masking ability and to potentially improve efficacy of the BCG vaccine, we used CRISPRi to inhibit expression of the essential enzyme pair, MurT-GatD, implicated in amidation of peptidoglycan sidechains. We demonstrate that depletion of these enzymes results in reduced growth, cell wall defects, increased susceptibility to antibiotics and altered spatial localization of new peptidoglycan. In cell culture experiments, training of monocytes with this recombinant BCG yielded improved control of Mtb growth. In the murine model of TB infection, we demonstrate that depletion of MurT-GatD in BCG, resulting in unmasking of the D-glutamate diaminopimelate (iE-DAP) NOD-1 ligand, yields superior prevention of TB disease compared to the standard BCG vaccine. This work demonstrates the feasibility of gene regulation platforms such as CRISPRi to alter antigen presentation in BCG in a bespoke manner that tunes immunity towards more effective protection against TB disease.

Mechanistic Insights into the Activities of Major Families of Enzymes in Bacterial Peptidoglycan Assembly and Breakdown

Serving as an exoskeletal scaffold, peptidoglycan is a polymeric macromolecule that is essential and conserved across all bacteria, yet is absent in mammalian cells; this has made bacterial peptidoglycan a well-established excellent antibiotic target. In addition, soluble peptidoglycan fragments derived from bacteria are increasingly recognised as key signalling molecules in mediating diverse intra- and inter-species communication in nature, including in gut microbiota-host crosstalk. Each bacterial species encodes multiple redundant enzymes for key enzymatic activities involved in peptidoglycan assembly and breakdown. In this review, we discuss recent findings on the biochemical activities of major peptidoglycan enzymes, including peptidoglycan glycosyltransferases (PGT) and transpeptidases (TPs) in the final stage of peptidoglycan assembly, as well as peptidoglycan glycosidases, lytic transglycosylase (LTs), amidases, endopeptidases (EPs) and carboxypeptidases (CPs) in peptidoglycan turnover and metabolism. Biochemical characterisation of these enzymes provides valuable insights into their substrate specificity, regulation mechanisms and potential modes of inhibition.

Real-time non-invasive fluorescence imaging of gut commensal bacteria to detect dynamic changes in the microbiome of live mice

In mammals, gut commensal microbiota interact extensively with the host, and the same interactions can be dysregulated in diseased states. Animal imaging is a powerful technique that is widely used to diagnose, measure, and track biological changes in model organisms such as laboratory mice. Several imaging techniques have been discovered and adopted by the research community that provide dynamic, non-invasive assessment of live animals, but these gains have not been universal across all fields of biology. Herein, we describe a method to non-invasively image commensal bacteria based on the specific metabolic labeling of bacterial cell walls to illuminate the gut bacteria of live mice. This tagging strategy may additionally provide unprecedented insight into cell wall turnover of gut commensals, which has implications for bacterial cellular growth and division, in a live animal.

Structure Activity Relationship of the Stem Peptide in Sortase A Mediated Ligation from Staphylococcus aureus

The surfaces of most Gram-positive bacterial cells, including that of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), are heavily decorated with proteins that coordinate cellular interactions with the extracellular space. In S. aureus, sortase A is the principal enzyme responsible for covalently anchoring proteins, which display the sorting signal LPXTG, onto the peptidoglycan (PG) matrix. Considerable efforts have been made to understand the role of this signal peptide in the sortase-mediated reaction. In contrast, much less is known about how the primary structure of the other substrate involved in the reaction (PG stem peptide) could impact sortase activity. To assess the sortase activity, a library of synthetic analogs of the stem peptide that mimic naturally existing variations found in the S. aureus PG primary sequence were evaluated. Using a combination of two unique assays, we showed that there is broad tolerability of substrate variations that are effectively processed by sortase A. While some of these stem peptide derivatives are naturally found in mature PG, they are not known to be present in the PG precursor, lipid II. These results suggest that sortase A could process both lipid II and mature PG as acyl-acceptor strands that might reside near the membrane, which has not been previously described.

Metabolic Processing of Selenium-Based Bioisosteres of meso-Diaminopimelic Acid in Live Bacteria

A primary component of all known bacterial cell walls is the peptidoglycan (PG) layer, which is composed of repeating units of sugars connected to short and unusual peptides. The various steps within PG biosynthesis are targets of potent antibiotics as proper assembly of the PG is essential for cellular growth and survival. Synthetic mimics of PG have proven to be indispensable tools to study the bacterial cell structure, growth, and remodeling. Yet, a common component of PG, meso-diaminopimelic acid (m-DAP) at the third position of the stem peptide, remains challenging to access synthetically and is not commercially available. Here, we describe the synthesis and metabolic processing of a selenium-based bioisostere of m-DAP (selenolanthionine) and show that it is installed within the PG of live bacteria by the native cell wall crosslinking machinery in mycobacterial species. This PG probe has an orthogonal release mechanism that could be important for downstream proteomics studies. Finally, we describe a bead-based assay that is compatible with high-throughput screening of cell wall enzymes. We envision that this probe will supplement the current methods available for investigating PG crosslinking in m-DAP-containing organisms.

High Immunogenicity of a T-Cell Epitope-Rich Recombinant Protein Rv1566c-444 From Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Immunized BALB/c Mice, Despite Its Low Diagnostic Sensitivity

The discovery of immunodominant antigens is of great significance for the development of new especially sensitive diagnostic reagents and effective vaccines in controlling tuberculosis (TB). In the present study, we targeted the T-Cell epitope-rich fragment (nucleotide position 109-552) of Rv1566c from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) and got a recombinant protein Rv1566c-444 and the full-length protein Rv1566c with Escherichia coli expression system, then compared their performances for TB diagnosis and immunogenicity in a mouse model. The results showed that Rv1566c-444 had similar sensitivity with Rv1566c (44.44% Vs 30.56%) but lower sensitivity than ESAT-6&CFP-10&Rv3615c (44.4% Vs. 94.4%) contained in a commercial kit for distinguishing TB patients from healthy donors. In immunized BALB/c mice, Rv1566c-444 elicited stronger T-helper 1 (Th1) cellular immune response over Rv1566c with higher levels of Th1 cytokine IFN-γ and IFN-γ/IL-4 expression ratio by ELISA; more importantly, with a higher proliferation of CD4⁺ T cells and a higher proportion of CD4⁺ TNF-α⁺ T cells with flow cytometry. Rv1566c-444 also induced a higher level of IL-6 by ELISA and a higher proportion of Rv1566c-444-specific CD8⁺ T cells and a lower proportion of CD8⁺ IL-4⁺ T cells by flow cytometry compared with the Rv1566c group. Moreover, the Rv1566c-444 group showed a high IgG secretion level and the same type of CD4+ Th cell immune response (both IgG1/IgG2a >1) as its parental protein group. Our results showed the potential of the recombinant protein Rv1566c-444 enriched with T-Cell epitopes from Rv1566c as a host T cell response measuring biomarker for TB diagnosis and support further evaluation of Rv1566c-444 as vaccine antigen against MTB challenge in animal models in the form of protein mixture or fusion protein.

Genetic Determinants of Surface Accessibility in Staphylococcus aureus

Bacterial cell walls represent one of the most prominent targets of antibacterial agents. These agents include natural products (e.g., vancomycin) and proteins stemming from the innate immune system (e.g., peptidoglycan-recognition proteins and lysostaphin). Among bacterial pathogens that infect humans, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) continues to impose a tremendous healthcare burden across the globe. S. aureus has evolved countermeasures that can directly restrict the accessibility of innate immune proteins, effectively protecting itself from threats that target key cell well components. We recently described a novel assay that directly reports on the accessibility of molecules to the peptidoglycan layer within the bacterial cell wall of S. aureus. The assay relies on site-specific chemical remodeling of the peptidoglycan with a biorthogonal handle. Here, we disclose the application of our assay to a screen of a nonredundant transposon mutant library for susceptibility of the peptidoglycan layer with the goal of identifying genes that contribute to the control of cell surface accessibility. We discovered several genes that resulted in higher accessibility levels to the peptidoglycan layer and showed that these genes modulate sensitivity to lysostaphin. These results indicate that this assay platform can be leveraged to gain further insight into the biology of bacterial cell surfaces.

Impact of crossbridge structure on peptidoglycan crosslinking: A synthetic stem peptide approach

The bacterial cell wall, whose main component is peptidoglycan (PG), provides cellular rigidity and prevents lysis from osmotic pressure. Moreover, the cell wall is the main interface between the external environment and internal cellular components. Given its essentiality, many antibiotics target enzymes related to the biosynthesis of cell wall. Of these enzymes, transpeptidases (TPs) are central to proper cell wall assembly and their inactivation is the mechanism of action of many antibiotics including β-lactams. TPs are responsible for stitching together strands of PG to make the crosslinked meshwork of the cell wall. This chapter focuses on the use of solid-phase peptide synthesis to build PG analogs that become site-selectively incorporated into the cell wall of live bacterial cells. This method allows for the design of fluorescent handles on PG probes that will enable the interrogation of substrate preferences of TPs (e.g., amidation at the glutamic acid residue, crossbridge presence) by analyzing the level of probe incorporation within the native cell wall of live bacterial cells.

29th Annual GP2A Medicinal Chemistry Conference

The 29th Annual GP₂A (Group for the Promotion of Pharmaceutical chemistry in Academia) Conference was a virtual event this year due to the COVID-19 pandemic and spanned three days from Wednesday 25 to Friday 27 August 2021. The meeting brought together an international delegation of researchers with interests in medicinal chemistry and interfacing disciplines. Abstracts of keynote lectures given by the 10 invited speakers, along with those of the 8 young researcher talks and the 50 flash presentation posters, are included in this report. Like previous editions, the conference was a real success, with high-level scientific discussions on cutting-edge advances in the fields of pharmaceutical chemistry.

Systematic Assessment of Accessibility to the Surface of Staphylococcus aureus

Proteins from bacterial foes, antimicrobial peptides, and host immune proteins must navigate past a dense layer of bacterial surface biomacromolecules to reach the peptidoglycan (PG) layer of Gram-positive bacteria. A subclass of molecules (e.g., antibiotics with intracellular targets) also must permeate through the PG (in a molecular sieving manner) to reach the cytoplasmic membrane. Despite the biological and therapeutic importance of surface accessibility, systematic analyses in live bacterial cells have been lacking. We describe a live cell fluorescence assay that is robust, shows a high level of reproducibility, and reports on the permeability of molecules to and within the PG scaffold. Moreover, our study shows that teichoic acids impede the permeability of molecules of a wide range of sizes and chemical composition.

AsnB Mediates Amidation of Meso-Diaminopimelic Acid Residues in the Peptidoglycan of Listeria monocytogenes and Affects Bacterial Surface Properties and Host Cell Invasion

A mutant of Listeria monocytogenes ScottA with a transposon in the 5' untranslated region of the asnB gene was identified to be hypersensitive to the antimicrobial t-cinnamaldehyde. Here, we report the functional characterization of AsnB in peptidoglycan (PG) modification and intracellular infection. While AsnB of Listeria is annotated as a glutamine-dependent asparagine synthase, sequence alignment showed that this protein is closely related to a subset of homologs that catalyze the amidation of meso-diaminopimelic acid (mDAP) residues in the peptidoglycan of other bacterial species. Structural analysis of peptidoglycan from an asnB mutant, compared to that of isogenic wild-type (WT) and complemented mutant strains, confirmed that AsnB mediates mDAP amidation in L. monocytogenes. Deficiency in mDAP amidation caused several peptidoglycan- and cell surface-related phenotypes in the asnB mutant, including formation of shorter but thicker cells, susceptibility to lysozyme, loss of flagellation and motility, and a strong reduction in biofilm formation. In addition, the mutant showed reduced invasion of human epithelial JEG-3 and Caco-2 cells. Analysis by immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that asnB inactivation abrogated the proper display at the listerial surface of the invasion protein InlA, which normally gets cross-linked to mDAP via its LPXTG motif. Together, this work shows that AsnB of L. monocytogenes, like several of its homologs in related Gram-positive bacteria, mediates the amidation of mDAP residues in the peptidoglycan and, in this way, affects several cell wall and cell surface-related properties. It also for the first time implicates the amidation of peptidoglycan mDAP residues in cell wall anchoring of InlA and in bacterial virulence.

SaccuFlow: A High-Throughput Analysis Platform to Investigate Bacterial Cell Wall Interactions

Bacterial cell walls are formidable barriers that protect bacterial cells against external insults and oppose internal turgor pressure. While cell wall composition is variable across species, peptidoglycan is the principal component of all cell walls. Peptidoglycan is a mesh-like scaffold composed of cross-linked strands that can be heavily decorated with anchored proteins. The biosynthesis and remodeling of peptidoglycan must be tightly regulated by cells because disruption to this biomacromolecule is lethal. This essentiality is exploited by the human innate immune system in resisting colonization and by a number of clinically relevant antibiotics that target peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Evaluation of molecules or proteins that interact with peptidoglycan can be a complicated and, typically, qualitative effort. We have developed a novel assay platform (SaccuFlow) that preserves the native structure of bacterial peptidoglycan and is compatible with high-throughput flow cytometry analysis. We show that the assay is facile and versatile as demonstrated by its compatibility with sacculi from Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and mycobacteria. Finally, we highlight the utility of this assay to assess the activity of sortase A from Staphylococcus aureus against potential antivirulence agents.

Induction of Endogenous Antibody Recruitment to the Surface of the Pathogen Enterococcus faecium

For the foreseeable future, conventional small molecule antibiotics will continue to be the predominant treatment option due to wide patient coverage and low costs. Today, however, there is already a significant portion of patients that fail to respond to small molecule antibiotics and, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, this number is poised to increase in the coming years. Therefore, this rise in drug resistant bacteria must be countered with the development of nontraditional therapies. We propose a measure based on the re-engagement of the immune system toward pathogenic bacteria by grafting bacterial cell surfaces with immunogenic agents. Herein, we describe a class of cell wall analogues that selectively graft bacterial cell surfaces with epitopes that promote their opsonization. More specifically, synthetic analogues of peptidoglycan conjugated to haptens were designed to be incorporated by the cell wall biosynthetic machinery into live Enterococcus faecium. E. faecium is a formidable human pathogen that poses a considerable burden to healthcare and often results in fatalities. We showed that treatment of E. faecium and vancomycin-resistant strains with the cell wall analogues led to the display of haptens on the cell surface, which induced the recruitment of antibodies existing in the serum of humans. These results demonstrate the feasibility in using cell wall analogues as the basis of a class of bacterial immunotherapies against dangerous pathogens.

AsnB is responsible for peptidoglycan precursor amidation in Clostridium difficile in the presence of vancomycin

Clostridium difficile 630 possesses a cryptic but functional gene cluster vanG _Cd homologous to the vanG operon of Enterococcus faecalis. Expression of vanG _Cd in the presence of subinhibitory concentrations of vancomycin is accompanied by peptidoglycan amidation on the meso-DAP residue. In this paper, we report the presence of two potential asparagine synthetase genes named asnB and asnB2 in the C. difficile genome whose products were potentially involved in this peptidoglycan structure modification. We found that asnB expression was only induced when C. difficile was grown in the presence of vancomycin, yet independently from the vanG _Cd resistance and regulation operons. In addition, peptidoglycan precursors were not amidated when asnB was inactivated. No change in vancomycin MIC was observed in the asnB mutant strain. In contrast, overexpression of asnB resulted in the amidation of most of the C. difficile peptidoglycan precursors and in a weak increase of vancomycin susceptibility. AsnB activity was confirmed in E. coli. In contrast, the expression of the second asparagine synthetase, AsnB2, was not induced in the presence of vancomycin. In summary, our results demonstrate that AsnB is responsible for peptidoglycan amidation of C. difficile in the presence of vancomycin.

Characterization of the MurT/GatD complex in Mycobacterium tuberculosis towards validating a novel anti-tubercular drug target

OBJECTIVES

Identification and validation of novel therapeutic targets is imperative to tackle the rise of drug resistance in tuberculosis. An essential Mur ligase-like gene (Rv3712), expected to be involved in cell-wall peptidoglycan (PG) biogenesis and conserved across mycobacteria, including the genetically depleted Mycobacterium leprae, was the primary focus of this study.

METHODS

Biochemical analysis of Rv3712 was performed using inorganic phosphate release assays. The operon structure was identified using reverse-transcriptase PCR and a transcription/translation fusion vector. In vivo mycobacterial protein fragment complementation assays helped generate the interactome.

RESULTS

Rv3712 was found to be an ATPase. Characterization of its operon revealed a mycobacteria-specific promoter driving the co-transcription of Rv3712 and Rv3713. The two gene products were found to interact with each other in vivo. Sequence-based functional assignments reveal that Rv3712 and Rv3713 are likely to be the mycobacterial PG precursor-modifying enzymes MurT and GatD, respectively. An in vivo network involving Mtb-MurT, regulatory proteins and cell division proteins was also identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the role of the enzyme complex in the context of PG metabolism and cell division, and the implications for antimicrobial resistance and host immune responses will facilitate the design of therapeutics that are targeted specifically to M. tuberculosis.

Facile Synthesis and Metabolic Incorporation of m-DAP Bioisosteres Into Cell Walls of Live Bacteria

Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan (PG), a scaffold that provides proper rigidity to resist lysis from internal osmotic pressure and a barrier to protect cells against external stressors. It consists of repeating sugar units with a linkage to a stem peptide that becomes cross-linked by cell wall transpeptidases (TP). While synthetic PG fragments containing l-lysine in the third position on the stem peptide are easier to access, those with meso-diaminopimelic acid (m-DAP) pose a severe synthetic challenge. Herein, we describe a solid phase synthetic scheme based on widely available building blocks to assemble meso-cystine (m-CYT), which mimics key structural features of m-DAP. To demonstrate proper mimicry of m-DAP, cell wall probes were synthesized with m-CYT in place of m-DAP and evaluated for their metabolic processing in live bacterial cells. We found that m-CYT-based cell wall probes were properly processed by TPs in various bacterial species that endogenously contain m-DAP in their PG. Additionally, we have used hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to explore the influence of m-DAP analogs on the PG cross-linking. The results showed that the cross-linking mechanism of transpeptidases occurred through a concerted process. We anticipate that this strategy, which is based on the use of inexpensive and commercially available building blocks, can be widely adopted to provide greater accessibility of PG mimics for m-DAP containing organisms.

Cell wall peptidoglycan in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: An Achilles' heel for the TB-causing pathogen

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, remains one of the leading causes of mortality across the world. There is an urgent requirement to build a robust arsenal of effective antimicrobials, targeting novel molecular mechanisms to overcome the challenges posed by the increase of antibiotic resistance in TB. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has a unique cell envelope structure and composition, containing a peptidoglycan layer that is essential for maintaining cellular integrity and for virulence. The enzymes involved in the biosynthesis, degradation, remodelling and recycling of peptidoglycan have resurfaced as attractive targets for anti-infective drug discovery. Here, we review the importance of peptidoglycan, including the structure, function and regulation of key enzymes involved in its metabolism. We also discuss known inhibitors of ATP-dependent Mur ligases, and discuss the potential for the development of pan-enzyme inhibitors targeting multiple Mur ligases.

Strategic Moves of "Superbugs" Against Available Chemical Scaffolds: Signaling, Regulation, and Challenges

Superbugs' resistivity against available natural products has become an alarming global threat, causing a rapid deterioration in public health and claiming tens of thousands of lives yearly. Although the rapid discovery of small molecules from plant and microbial origin with enhanced bioactivity has provided us with some hope, a rapid hike in the resistivity of superbugs has proven to be the biggest therapeutic hurdle of all times. Moreover, several distinct mechanisms endowed by these notorious superbugs make them immune to these antibiotics subsequently causing our antibiotic wardrobe to be obsolete. In this unfortunate situation, though the time frame for discovering novel "hit molecules" down the line remains largely unknown, our small hope and untiring efforts injected in hunting novel chemical scaffolds with unique molecular targets using high-throughput technologies may safeguard us against these life-threatening challenges to some extent. Amid this crisis, the current comprehensive review highlights the present status of knowledge, our search for bacteria Achilles' heel, distinct molecular signaling that an opportunistic pathogen bestows to trespass the toxicity of antibiotics, and facile strategies and appealing therapeutic targets of novel drugs. Herein, we also discuss multidimensional strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance.

Remodeling of Cross-bridges Controls Peptidoglycan Cross-linking Levels in Bacterial Cell Walls

Cell walls are barriers found in almost all known bacterial cells. These structures establish a controlled interface between the external environment and vital cellular components. A primary component of cell wall is a highly cross-linked matrix called peptidoglycan (PG). PG cross-linking, carried out by transglycosylases and transpeptidases, is necessary for proper cell wall assembly. Transpeptidases, targets of β-lactam antibiotics, stitch together two neighboring PG stem peptides (acyl-donor and acyl-acceptor strands). We recently described a novel class of cellular PG probes that were processed exclusively as acyl-donor strands. Herein, we have accessed the other half of the transpeptidase reaction by developing probes that are processed exclusively as acyl-acceptor strands. The critical nature of the cross-bridge on the PG peptide was demonstrated in live bacterial cells, and surprising promiscuity in cross-bridge primary sequence was found in various bacterial species. Additionally, acyl-acceptor probes provided insight into how chemical remodeling of the PG cross-bridge (e.g., amidation) can modulate cross-linking levels, thus establishing a physiological role of PG structural variations. Together, the acyl-donor and -acceptor probes will provide a versatile platform to interrogate PG cross-linking in physiologically relevant settings.

Peptidoglycan biosynthesis and remodeling revisited

The bacterial peptidoglycan layer forms a complex mesh-like structure that surrounds the cell, imparting rigidity to withstand cytoplasmic turgor and the ability to tolerate stress. As peptidoglycan has been the target of numerous clinically successful antimicrobials such as penicillin, the biosynthesis, remodeling and recycling of this polymer has been the subject of much interest. Herein, we review recent advances in the understanding of peptidoglycan biosynthesis and remodeling in a variety of different organisms. In order for bacterial cells to grow and divide, remodeling of cross-linked peptidoglycan is essential hence, we also summarize the activity of important peptidoglycan hydrolases and how their functions differ in various species. There is a growing body of evidence highlighting complex regulatory mechanisms for peptidoglycan metabolism including protein interactions, phosphorylation and protein degradation and we summarize key recent findings in this regard. Finally, we provide an overview of peptidoglycan recycling and how components of this pathway mediate resistance to drugs. In the face of growing antimicrobial resistance, these recent advances are expected to uncover new drug targets in peptidoglycan metabolism, which can be used to develop novel therapies.

Phylogenetic and Biochemical Analyses of Mycobacterial l,d-Transpeptidases Reveal a Distinct Enzyme Class That Is Preferentially Acylated by Meropenem

The genomes of diverse mycobacterial species encode multiple proteins with the canonical l,d-transpeptidase (Ldt) sequence motif. The reason for this apparent redundancy is not well understood, but evidence suggests paralogous Ldts may serve niche roles in maintaining and/or remodeling mycobacterial peptidoglycan. We examined 323 mycobacterial Ldts and determined these enzymes cluster into six clades. We identified a variably represented yet distinct Ldt class (class 6) containing Mycobacterium smegmatis (Msm) LdtF and built a homology model of Msm LdtF toward elucidating class 6 structural and functional differences. We report class 6 Ldts have structurally divergent catalytic domains containing a 10-residue insertion near the active site and additionally determined that meropenem preferentially acylates LdtF. Our data demonstrate an evolutionary basis for mycobacterial Ldt multiplicity that lends support to the idea that paralogous Ldts serve nonredundant roles in vivo and suggests class 6 Ldts can be selectively targeted by specific carbapenem antibiotics.

L,D-Transpeptidase Specific Probe Reveals Spatial Activity of Peptidoglycan Cross-Linking

Peptidoglycan (PG) is a cross-linked, meshlike scaffold endowed with the strength to withstand the internal pressure of bacteria. Bacteria are known to heavily remodel their peptidoglycan stem peptides, yet little is known about the physiological impact of these chemical variations on peptidoglycan cross-linking. Furthermore, there are limited tools to study these structural variations, which can also have important implications on cell wall integrity and host immunity. Cross-linking of peptide chains within PG is an essential process, and its disruption thereof underpins the potency of several classes of antibiotics. Two primary cross-linking modes have been identified that are carried out by D,D-transpeptidases and L,D-transpeptidases (Ldts). The nascent PG from each enzymatic class is structurally unique, which results in different cross-linking configurations. Recent advances in PG cellular probes have been powerful in advancing the understanding of D,D-transpeptidation by Penicillin Binding Proteins (PBPs). In contrast, no cellular probes have been previously described to directly interrogate Ldt function in live cells. Herein, we describe a new class of Ldt-specific probes composed of structural analogs of nascent PG, which are metabolically incorporated into the PG scaffold by Ldts. With a panel of tetrapeptide PG stem mimics, we demonstrated that subtle modifications such as amidation of iso-Glu can control PG cross-linking. Ldt probes were applied to quantify and track the localization of Ldt activity in Enterococcus faecium, Mycobacterium smegmatis, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These results confirm that our Ldt probes are specific and suggest that the primary sequence of the stem peptide can control Ldt cross-linking levels. We anticipate that unraveling the interplay between Ldts and other cross-linking modalities may reveal the organization of the PG structure in relation to the spatial localization of cross-linking machineries.

Role of MurT C-Terminal Domain in the Amidation of Staphylococcus aureus Peptidoglycan

Glutamate amidation, a secondary modification of the peptidoglycan, was first identified in Staphylococcus aureus It is catalyzed by the protein products of the murT and gatD genes, which are conserved and colocalized in the genomes of most sequenced Gram-positive bacterial species. The MurT-GatD complex is required for cell viability, full resistance to β-lactam antibiotics, and resistance to human lysozyme and is recognized as an attractive target for new antimicrobials. Great effort has been invested in the study of this step, culminating recently in three independent reports addressing the structural elucidation of the MurT-GatD complex. In this work, we demonstrate through the use of nonstructural approaches the critical and multiple roles of the C-terminal domain of MurT, annotated as DUF1727, in the MurT-GatD enzymatic complex. This domain provides the physical link between the two enzymatic activities and is essential for the amidation reaction. Copurification of recombinant MurT and GatD proteins and bacterial two-hybrid assays support the observation that the MurT-GatD interaction occurs through this domain. Most importantly, we provide in vivo evidence of the effect of substitutions at specific residues in DUF1727 on cell wall peptidoglycan amidation and on the phenotypes of oxacillin resistance and bacterial growth.

Recognition of Peptidoglycan Fragments by the Transpeptidase PBP4 From Staphylococcus aureus

Peptidoglycan (PG) is an essential component of the cell envelope, maintaining bacterial cell shape and protecting it from bursting due to turgor pressure. The monoderm bacterium Staphylococcus aureus has a highly cross-linked PG, with ~90% of peptide stems participating in DD-cross-links and up to 15 peptide stems connected with each other. These cross-links are formed in transpeptidation reactions catalyzed by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) of classes A and B. Most S. aureus strains have three housekeeping PBPs with this function (PBP1, PBP2, and PBP3) but MRSA strains have acquired a third class B PBP, PBP2a, which is encoded by the mecA gene and required for the expression of high-level resistance to β-lactams. Another housekeeping PBP of S. aureus is PBP4, which belongs to the class C PBPs, and hence would be expected to have PG hydrolase (DD-carboxypeptidase or DD-endopeptidase) activity. However, previous works showed that, unexpectedly, PBP4 has transpeptidase activity that significantly contributes to both the high level of cross-linking in the PG of S. aureus and to the low level of β-lactam resistance in the absence of PBP2a. To gain insights into this unusual activity of PBP4, we studied by NMR spectroscopy its interaction in vitro with different substrates, including intact peptidoglycan, synthetic peptide stems, muropeptides, and long glycan chains with uncross-linked peptide stems. PBP4 showed no affinity for the complex, intact peptidoglycan or the smallest isolated peptide stems. Transpeptidase activity of PBP4 was verified with the disaccharide peptide subunits (muropeptides) in vitro, producing cyclic dimer and multimer products; these assays also showed a designed PBP4(S75C) nucleophile mutant to be inactive. Using this inactive but structurally highly similar variant, liquid-state NMR identified two interaction surfaces in close proximity to the central nucleophile position that can accommodate the potential donor and acceptor stems for the transpeptidation reaction. A PBP4:muropeptide model structure was built from these experimental restraints, which provides new mechanistic insights into mecA independent resistance to β-lactams in S. aureus.

Peptidoglycan

The peptidoglycan sacculus is a net-like polymer that surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane in most bacteria. It is essential to maintain the bacterial cell shape and protect from turgor. The peptidoglycan has a basic composition, common to all bacteria, with species-specific variations that can modify its biophysical properties or the pathogenicity of the bacteria. The synthesis of peptidoglycan starts in the cytoplasm and the precursor lipid II is flipped across the cytoplasmic membrane. The new peptidoglycan strands are synthesised and incorporated into the pre-existing sacculus by the coordinated activities of peptidoglycan synthases and hydrolases. In the model organism Escherichia coli there are two complexes required for the elongation and division. Each of them is regulated by different proteins from both the cytoplasmic and periplasmic sides that ensure the well-coordinated synthesis of new peptidoglycan.