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Salminen-Paatero S, Mussalo-Rauhamaa H. Effects of liver's state of health on its iron and plutonium content. Int J Radiat Biol 2024; 100:1165-1173. [PMID: 38889304 DOI: 10.1080/09553002.2024.2369104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Plutonium and iron share a common metabolism in terms of their transportation and accumulation in the human body. This study examined their concentrations in livers with different states of health, and the effects of fatty degeneration and cirrhosis on their accumulation in the liver. MATERIALS AND METHODS We determined the concentrations of plutonium and iron in autopsy liver samples from 1976-1979. Using statistical analysis, we investigated the relationships between the different variables. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The burdens of 239,240Pu and Fe correlated positively (Rs = 0.411) in the healthy livers, but not in the livers that had pathological findings. In contrast to the Fe content, the 239,240Pu content in the fatty degenerated or cirrhotic livers was significantly lower than that in normal livers. This difference may suggest that plutonium and iron do not accumulate or are not excreted in the same way in fatty degenerated and cirrhotic livers. The reaction mechanisms for the binding and excretion of plutonium, particularly in a fatty degenerated liver, are not yet fully known.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Helena Mussalo-Rauhamaa
- Department of Chemistry, Radiochemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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2
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Zurita C, Tsushima S, Solari PL, Menut D, Dourdain S, Jeanson A, Creff G, Den Auwer C. Interaction Between the Transferrin Protein and Plutonium (and Thorium), What's New? Chemistry 2023; 29:e202300636. [PMID: 37526142 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202300636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Transferrin (Tf) is a glycoprotein that transports iron from the serum to the various organs. Several studies have highlighted that Tf can interact with metals other than Fe(III), including actinides that are chemical and radiological toxics. We propose here to report on the behavior of Th(IV) and Pu(IV) in comparison with Fe(III) upon Tf complexation. We considered UV-Vis and IR data of the M2 Tf complex (M=Fe, Th, Pu) and combined experimental EXAFS data with MD models. EXAFS data of the first M-O coordination sphere are consistent with the MD model considering 1 synergistic carbonate. Further EXAFS data analysis strongly suggests that contamination by Th/Pu colloids seems to occur upon Tf complexation, but it seems limited. SAXS data have also been recorded for all complexes and also after the addition of Deferoxamine-B (DFOB) in the medium. The Rg values are very close for apoTf, ThTf and PuTf, but slightly larger than for holoTf. Data suggest that the structure of the protein is more ellipsoidal than spherical, with a flattened oblate form. From this data, the following order of conformation size might be considered:holoTf
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril Zurita
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Nice, 06108, Nice, France
| | - Satoru Tsushima
- Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR), 01328, Dresden, Germany
- Internationnal Research Frontiers Initiative, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Meguro, 152-8550, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Denis Menut
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, L'Orme des Merisiers, 91190, Saint Aubin, France
| | | | - Aurélie Jeanson
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Nice, 06108, Nice, France
| | - Gaëlle Creff
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Nice, 06108, Nice, France
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3
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Daronnat L, Holfeltz V, Boubals N, Dumas T, Guilbaud P, Martinez DM, Moisy P, Sauge-Merle S, Lemaire D, Solari PL, Berthon L, Berthomieu C. Investigation of the Plutonium(IV) Interactions with Two Variants of the EF-Hand Ca-Binding Site I of Calmodulin. Inorg Chem 2023; 62:8334-8346. [PMID: 37184364 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.3c00845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Due to its presence in the nuclear industry and its strong radiotoxicity, plutonium is an actinide of major interest in the event of internal contamination. To improve the understanding of its mechanisms of transport and accumulation in the body, the complexation of Pu(IV) to the most common protein calcium-binding motif found in cells, the EF-hand motif of calmodulin, was investigated. Visible and X-ray absorption spectroscopies (XAS) in solution made it possible to investigate the speciation of plutonium at physiological pH (pH 7.4) and pH 6 in two variants of the calmodulin Ca-binding site I and using Pu(IV) in different media: carbonate, chloride, or nitrate solutions. Three different species of Pu were identified in the samples, with formation of 1:1 Pu(IV):calmodulin peptide complexes, Pu(IV) reduction, and formation of peptide-mediated Pu(IV) hexanuclear cluster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Daronnat
- CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, Bagnols-sur-cèze 30200, France
| | - Vanessa Holfeltz
- CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, Bagnols-sur-cèze 30200, France
| | - Nathalie Boubals
- CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, Bagnols-sur-cèze 30200, France
| | - Thomas Dumas
- CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, Bagnols-sur-cèze 30200, France
| | - Philippe Guilbaud
- CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, Bagnols-sur-cèze 30200, France
| | | | - Philippe Moisy
- CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, Bagnols-sur-cèze 30200, France
| | - Sandrine Sauge-Merle
- Aix Marseille Université, CEA, CNRS, BIAM, UMR7265, IPM, Saint Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France
| | - David Lemaire
- Aix Marseille Université, CEA, CNRS, BIAM, UMR7265, IPM, Saint Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France
| | - Pier Lorenzo Solari
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, L'Orme des Merisiers, Départementale 128, Saint Aubin 91190, France
| | - Laurence Berthon
- CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, Bagnols-sur-cèze 30200, France
| | - Catherine Berthomieu
- Aix Marseille Université, CEA, CNRS, BIAM, UMR7265, IPM, Saint Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France
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4
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Beccia MR, Creff G, Den Auwer C, Di Giorgio C, Jeanson A, Michel H. Environmental Chemistry of Radionuclides : Open Questions and Perspectives. Chempluschem 2022; 87:e202200108. [PMID: 35778807 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202200108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Since the discovery of nuclear fission, atomic energy has become for mankind a source of energy, but it has also become a source of consternation. This Perspective presents and discusses the methodological evolution of the work performed in the radiochemistry laboratory that is part of the Institut de Chimie de Nice (France). Most studies in radioecology and environmental radiochemistry have intended to assess the impact and inventory of very low levels of radionuclides in specific environmental compartments. But chemical mechanisms at the molecular level remain a mystery because it is technically impossible (due to large dilution factors) to assess speciation in those systems. Ultra-trace levels of contamination and heterogeneity often preclude the use of spectroscopic techniques and the determination of direct speciation data, thus forming the bottleneck of speciation studies. The work performed in the Nice radiochemistry laboratory underlines this effort to input speciation data (using spectroscopic techniques like X ray Absorption Spectroscopy) in environmental and radioecological metrics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gaëlle Creff
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ICN, 06108, Nice, France
| | | | | | | | - Hervé Michel
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ICN, 06108, Nice, France
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5
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Moreno Martinez D, Guillaumont D, Guilbaud P. Force Field Parameterization of Actinyl Molecular Cations Using the 12-6-4 Model. J Chem Inf Model 2022; 62:2432-2445. [PMID: 35537184 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.2c00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this work, a set of 12-6-4 force fields (FFs) parameters were developed for the actinyl molecular cations, AnO2n+ (n = 1, 2), from uranium to plutonium for classical molecular dynamics (MD) for four water models: TIP3P, SPC/E, OPC3, and TIP4Pew. Such a non-bonded potential model taking into account the induced dipole between the metallic center and the surrounding molecules has shown better performances for various cations than the classic 12-6 non-bonded potentials. The parametrization method proposed elsewhere for metallic cations has been extended to these molecular cations. In contrast to the actinyl 12-6 FFs from the literature, the new models reproduce correctly both solvation and thermodynamic properties, thanks to the inclusion of the induced dipole term (C4). The transferability of such force fields was assessed by performing MD simulations of carbonato actinyl species, which are highly implicated in actinide migration or actinide extraction from seawater. A highly satisfying agreement was found when comparing the EXAFS signals computed from our MD simulation to the experimental ones. The set of FFs developed here opens new possibilities for the study of actinide chemistry.
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Chelating Polymers for Targeted Decontamination of Actinides: Application of PEI-MP to Hydroxyapatite-Th(IV). Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23094732. [PMID: 35563121 PMCID: PMC9100511 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In case of an incident in the nuclear industry or an act of war or terrorism, the dissemination of plutonium could contaminate the environment and, hence, humans. Human contamination mainly occurs via inhalation and/or wounding (and, less likely, ingestion). In such cases, plutonium, if soluble, reaches circulation, whereas the poorly soluble fraction (such as small colloids) is trapped in alveolar macrophages or remains at the site of wounding. Once in the blood, the plutonium is delivered to the liver and/or to the bone, particularly into its mineral part, mostly composed of hydroxyapatite. Countermeasures against plutonium exist and consist of intravenous injections or inhalation of diethylenetetraminepentaacetate salts. Their effectiveness is, however, mainly confined to the circulating soluble forms of plutonium. Furthermore, the short bioavailability of diethylenetetraminepentaacetate results in its rapid elimination. To overcome these limitations and to provide a complementary approach to this common therapy, we developed polymeric analogs to indirectly target the problematic retention sites. We present herein a first study regarding the decontamination abilities of polyethyleneimine methylcarboxylate (structural diethylenetetraminepentaacetate polymer analog) and polyethyleneimine methylphosphonate (phosphonate polymeric analog) directed against Th(IV), used here as a Pu(IV) surrogate, which was incorporated into hydroxyapatite used as a bone model. Our results suggest that polyethylenimine methylphosphonate could be a good candidate for powerful bone decontamination action.
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7
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Zurita C, Tsushima S, Solari PL, Jeanson A, Creff G, Den Auwer C. Interaction of Th(IV), Pu(IV) and Fe(III) with ferritin protein: how similar? JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2022; 29:45-52. [PMID: 34985422 PMCID: PMC8733997 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577521012340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Ferritin is the main protein of Fe storage in eukaryote and prokaryote cells. It is a large multifunctional, multi-subunit protein consisting of heavy H and light L subunits. In the field of nuclear toxicology, it has been suggested that some actinide elements, such as thorium and plutonium at oxidation state +IV, have a comparable `biochemistry' to iron at oxidation state +III owing to their very high tendency for hydrolysis and somewhat comparable ionic radii. Therefore, the possible mechanisms of interaction of such actinide elements with the Fe storage protein is a fundamental question of bio-actinidic chemistry. We recently described the complexation of Pu(IV) and Th(IV) with horse spleen ferritin (composed mainly of L subunits). In this article, we bring another viewpoint to this question by further combining modeling with our previous EXAFS data for Pu(IV) and Th(IV). As a result, the interaction between the L subunits and both actinides appears to be non-specific but driven only by the density of the presence of Asp and Glu residues on the protein shell. The formation of an oxyhydroxide Th or Pu core has not been observed under the experimental conditions here, nor the interaction of Th or Pu with the ferric oxyhydroxide core.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril Zurita
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, ICN, 06108 Nice, France
| | - Satoru Tsushima
- Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR), 01328 Dresden, Germany
- World Research Hub Initiative (WRHI), Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Meguro, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
| | | | | | - Gaëlle Creff
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, ICN, 06108 Nice, France
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8
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Pallares RM, An DD, Hébert S, Faulkner D, Loguinov A, Proctor M, Villalobos JA, Bjornstad KA, Rosen CJ, Vulpe C, Abergel RJ. Multidimensional genome-wide screening in yeast provides mechanistic insights into europium toxicity. Metallomics 2021; 13:6409834. [PMID: 34694395 DOI: 10.1093/mtomcs/mfab061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Europium is a lanthanide metal that is highly valued in optoelectronics. Even though europium is used in many commercial products, its toxicological profile has only been partially characterized, with most studies focusing on identifying lethal doses in different systems or bioaccumulation in vivo. This paper describes a genome-wide toxicogenomic study of europium in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which shares many biological functions with humans. By using a multidimensional approach and functional and network analyses, we have identified a group of genes and proteins associated with the yeast responses to ameliorate metal toxicity, which include metal discharge paths through vesicle-mediated transport, paths to regulate biologically relevant cations, and processes to reduce metal-induced stress. Furthermore, the analyses indicated that europium promotes yeast toxicity by disrupting the function of chaperones and cochaperones, which have metal-binding sites. Several of the genes and proteins highlighted in our study have human orthologues, suggesting they may participate in europium-induced toxicity in humans. By identifying the endogenous targets of europium as well as the already existing paths that can decrease its toxicity, we can determine specific genes and proteins that may help to develop future therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger M Pallares
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Dahlia D An
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Solène Hébert
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - David Faulkner
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Alex Loguinov
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Michael Proctor
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Jonathan A Villalobos
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Kathleen A Bjornstad
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Chris J Rosen
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Christopher Vulpe
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Rebecca J Abergel
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.,Department of Nuclear Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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9
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In vitro evidence of the influence of complexation of Pu and Am on uptake by human lung epithelial cells Calu-3. Toxicol In Vitro 2021; 79:105279. [PMID: 34843884 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2021.105279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms involved in retention and clearance of actinides from the lungs after accidental intake is essential for the evaluation of the associated radiological risks. Although the absorption of radioelements has been shown in vivo to depend on their nature and physico-chemical properties, their mechanisms of translocation remain unknown. In this study, we have evaluated in vitro the binding and uptake by bronchial epithelial cells Calu-3 of 2 transuranic actinides, plutonium (Pu) and americium (Am), as the first steps of translocation across the pulmonary barrier. For this purpose, Calu-3 cells grown to confluence in 24-well plates were exposed to the radioelements for 24 h under various culture conditions. Two compartments were identified for the association of actinides to cells, corresponding to the membrane bound and internalized fractions. Binding of Pu was slightly higher than of Am, and depended on its initial chemical form (nitrate, citrate, colloids). Uptake of Pu and Am nitrate was higher in serum-free conditions than in supplemented medium, with an active mechanism involved in Pu internalization. Overall, our results suggest that complexation of actinides to bioligands may have an influence on their uptake by pulmonary epithelial cells, and therefore possibly on their subsequent absorption into blood.
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Deblonde GJP, Mattocks JA, Wang H, Gale EM, Kersting AB, Zavarin M, Cotruvo JA. Characterization of Americium and Curium Complexes with the Protein Lanmodulin: A Potential Macromolecular Mechanism for Actinide Mobility in the Environment. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:15769-15783. [PMID: 34542285 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c07103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Anthropogenic radionuclides, including long-lived heavy actinides such as americium and curium, represent the primary long-term challenge for management of nuclear waste. The potential release of these wastes into the environment necessitates understanding their interactions with biogeochemical compounds present in nature. Here, we characterize the interactions between the heavy actinides, Am3+ and Cm3+, and the natural lanthanide-binding protein, lanmodulin (LanM). LanM is produced abundantly by methylotrophic bacteria, including Methylorubrum extorquens, that are widespread in the environment. We determine the first stability constant for an Am3+-protein complex (Am3LanM) and confirm the results with Cm3LanM, indicating a ∼5-fold higher affinity than that for lanthanides with most similar ionic radius, Nd3+ and Sm3+, and making LanM the strongest known heavy actinide-binding protein. The protein's high selectivity over 243Am's daughter nuclide 239Np enables lab-scale actinide-actinide separations as well as provides insight into potential protein-driven mobilization for these actinides in the environment. The luminescence properties of the Cm3+-LanM complex, and NMR studies of Gd3+-LanM, reveal that lanmodulin-bound f-elements possess two coordinated solvent molecules across a range of metal ionic radii. Finally, we show under a wide range of environmentally relevant conditions that lanmodulin effectively outcompetes desferrioxamine B, a hydroxamate siderophore previously proposed to be important in trivalent actinide mobility. These results suggest that natural lanthanide-binding proteins such as lanmodulin may play important roles in speciation and mobility of actinides in the environment; it also suggests that protein-based biotechnologies may provide a new frontier in actinide remediation, detection, and separations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gauthier J-P Deblonde
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States.,Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Joseph A Mattocks
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Huan Wang
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, 149 Thirteenth Street, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Eric M Gale
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, 149 Thirteenth Street, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Annie B Kersting
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States.,Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Mavrik Zavarin
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States.,Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Joseph A Cotruvo
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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11
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Tsantis ST, Danelli P, Tzimopoulos DI, Raptopoulou CP, Psycharis V, Perlepes SP. Pentanuclear Thorium(IV) Coordination Cluster from the Use of Di(2-pyridyl) Ketone. Inorg Chem 2021; 60:11888-11892. [PMID: 34351755 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c01800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The Th(NO3)4·5H2O/di(2-pyridyl) ketone [(py)2CO] reaction system gives a pentanuclear cluster containing the doubly deprotonated form of the gem-diol derivative of the ligand. The cluster consists of a tetrahedral arrangement of four ThIV ions centered on the fifth ion, which is the first characterized ThIV5 complex. The analysis of its structure reveals that this is a Kuratowski-type coordination compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sokratis T Tsantis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece.,Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (FORTH), Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences (ICE-HT), P.O Box 144, 26504 Platani, Greece
| | | | | | - Catherine P Raptopoulou
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology NCSR "Demokritos", 15310 Aghia Paraskevi, Attikis, Greece
| | - Vassilis Psycharis
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology NCSR "Demokritos", 15310 Aghia Paraskevi, Attikis, Greece
| | - Spyros P Perlepes
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece.,Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (FORTH), Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences (ICE-HT), P.O Box 144, 26504 Platani, Greece
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