The minimal clinically important difference of the Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale in patients with cancer with agitated delirium

Management of Physical Symptoms in Patients with Advanced Cancer During the Last Weeks and Days of Life

Patients with advanced cancer are faced with many devastating symptoms in the last weeks and days of life, such as pain, delirium, dyspnea, bronchial hypersecretions (death rattle), and intractable seizures. Symptom management in the last weeks of life can be particularly challenging because of the high prevalence of delirium complicating symptom assessment, high symptom expression secondary to psychosocial and spiritual factors, limited life-expectancy requiring special considerations for prognosis-based decision-making, and distressed caregivers. There is a paucity of research involving patients in the last weeks of life, contributing to substantial variations in clinical practice. In this narrative review, we shall review the existing literature and provide a practical approach to in-patient management of several of the most distressing physical symptoms in the last weeks to days of life.

An open-label clinical trial of oral transmucosal haloperidol and oral transmucosal olanzapine in the treatment of terminal delirium at home

Background

The phenomenon of restlessness, agitation, or cognitive disturbances experienced by dying patients is well-known in palliative care; more than half of these patients will experience delirium symptoms at end-of-life. When not identified early and effectively managed, delirium symptoms could lead to caregiver and patient distress and harm.

Methods

Eighty patients with a prognosis of 7 days or less will be recruited for an open-label randomised control trial. The two arms compare oral-transmucosal haloperidol 2.5 mg vs olanzapine 5 mg over 72 h. The severity of agitation, delirium and toxicities of treatments will be compared at the 24th, 48th and 72nd hour after drug administration.

Discussion

This trial is the first to compare anti-psychotics in the management of delirium at the dying stage in the home hospice setting using the oral transmucosal route. Ethical considerations, as well as recruitment procedures, are discussed.

Trial registration

This study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov – identifier NCT04750395

Personalized sedation goal for agitated delirium in patients with cancer: Balancing comfort and communication

BACKGROUND

Agitated delirium is common and highly distressing. Medications are often needed to reduce agitation, but it is unclear what the desired level of sedation is. This study assessed personalized sedation goals (PSGs) and their predictors for patients in a delirium clinical trial and in clinical vignettes.

METHODS

This was a preplanned secondary analysis of a double-blind randomized clinical trial examining the sedative effect of chlorpromazine and/or haloperidol in patients with agitated delirium. At the baseline, caregivers and nurses were independently asked to select the PSG for the trial patient from 5 choices corresponding to Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale (RASS) scores of 0 or higher (no sedation), -1 to -2, -3, -4, and -5 (deep sedation). Respondents also selected a PSG for 6 vignettes that differed by the level of agitation, ability to communicate, and survival.

RESULTS

Forty-two caregivers and 39 nurses answered questions regarding PSGs. For the trial patient, caregivers preferred RASS scores of -1 to -2 most often (36%), whereas nurses preferred an RASS score of -3 most often (51 %). Caregivers were significantly more likely than nurses to choose lighter sedation (odds ratio [OR], 4.8; P = .01) despite reporting greater delirium-related distress (P = .0006). Patients were undersedated 33% to 53% of the time and oversedated 0% to 15% of the time according to the PSG response criteria. In the case vignettes, deeper sedation was preferred by nurses (P < .0001) and for patients who were unable to communicate (OR, 3.1-4.4; P < .0001) and had a shorter life expectancy (OR, 1.7; P = .002).

CONCLUSIONS

Caregivers often preferred lighter sedation than nurses. Many patients were undersedated in comparison with caregivers' PSGs, and this highlights room for improvement.

LAY SUMMARY

In the last days of life, many patients with cancer develop delirium and become restless/agitated; this can be highly distressing. Caregivers and physicians alike are often concerned about the use of sedatives for agitated delirium and try to find a balance between maximizing comfort and maintaining communication. This study examined the concept of a personalized sedation goal for setting an individualized target for the level of sedation. Caregivers often preferred lighter sedation than nurses. Many patients were undersedated in comparison with caregivers' stated goals, and this highlights room for improvement.

Association among rescue neuroleptic use, agitation, and perceived comfort: secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial on agitated delirium

BACKGROUND

Few studies have examined how the use of rescue medications could be used to inform on the efficacy of interventions in delirium clinical trials. The objective of this study was to determine the association among rescue medication use, Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale (RASS), and perceived comfort by the nurses and caregivers.

METHODS

This was a pre-planned secondary analysis of a double-blind, randomized clinical trial comparing the use of a single dose of lorazepam plus haloperidol versus placebo plus haloperidol in patients with agitated delirium. Rescue medications were considered the gold standard for this analysis. The optimal cutoff for RASS analysis was calculated by using general linear regression models and determining the area of the curve and using the top left approach. We used 2 × 2 tables to examine the association between rescue medication use and perceived comfort.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight patients received the study medications and 52 (89%) completed the 8-h observation period. There were 26 (50%) patients in each arm. The lorazepam/haloperidol arm required fewer rescue doses (4/26 (15%)) vs. 16/26 (62%), p = 0.004). Patients with a greater initial RASS reduction required fewer rescue doses. The cutoff value for RASS improvement was 4 points, area under the curve (AUC) 0.64 (95% CI 0.49-0.79) for those who required no rescue doses, and 3 points, AUC 0.74 (95% CI 0.52-0.96) for those who required more than one rescue dose.

CONCLUSIONS

Rescue medication use was responsive to change and associated with both RASS scores and perceived patient comfort by the nurse and caregiver.

Relationship Between Delirium and Ventilatory Outcomes in the Medical Intensive Care Unit

BACKGROUND

Delirium is a common neuropsychiatric diagnosis in intensive care units and often leads to extended hospital stays and an increased rate of complications. Delirium can be classified as hypoactive, hyperactive, or mixed. Hyperactive delirium is often accompanied by agitation, which is a predictive factor for unplanned extubation. Hypoactive delirium does not include outward agitation; its incidence and relationship to ventilatory outcomes, specifically unplanned extubation and duration of mechanical ventilation, are relatively unexplored.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the occurrence rate of each delirium type in the first 7 days after intensive care unit admission and explore the relationship between delirium type and ventilatory outcomes.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study that enrolled adult patients consecutively admitted to a medical intensive care unit over 12 months. Data were abstracted on patient demographic variables, daily clinical variables (morning and evening delirium, coma, and sedation scores), and outcome variables (unplanned extubation, length of stay, and duration of mechanical ventilation).

RESULTS

We enrolled 171 patients in the study. Hypoactive delirium occurred in up to 44% of patients. Of 25 instances of unplanned extubation, up to 74% of patients had hypoactive delirium. Delirium was not a predictor of unplanned extubation; smoking history, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and failed breathing trials best predicted unplanned extubation (odds ratios = 3.2, 5.2, and 12.6, respectively; P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Hypoactive delirium is common among intensive care unit patients and may precede unplanned extubation. Patient history and comorbidities remain the strongest predictors of unplanned extubation.

Calming the Agitated Patient: Providing Strategies to Support Clinicians

Agitation is a symptom of many medical and psychiatric disorders that can manifest along a spectrum of severity. Agitation often delays treatment onset, potentially impacting morbidity and mortality, and may require emergency interventions. Management of acute agitation centers around three main goals: early recognition and treatment of the underlying etiology, rapid control of the behavior, and prevention of harm to the patient and personnel. Nurses should increase use of validated techniques, including frequent and sufficient reality orientation, validation therapy, and strategies that improve the individual's quality of life.

Haloperidol in palliative care: Indications and risks

Individual response to medication depends on several factors (age, gender, body weight, general clinical condition, genetics, diet, hydration status, comorbidities, co-administered drugs and their mode of administration, smoking, alcohol overuse, environmental factors, e.g. sunlight) that may contribute to adverse drug reactions even at therapeutic doses. Patients in palliative care are at increased risk of these reactions. Unwanted drug effects diminish the quality of life and may lead to a suboptimal dying process. Haloperidol is one of the three most commonly used drugs in palliative care and the most commonly employed typical antipsychotic. It has also been recommended for inclusion into the palliative care emergency kit of home care teams. As such, it is important to be fully conversant with the indications, benefits, and risks of haloperidol, especially in the context of palliative care.

Neuroleptic strategies for terminal agitation in patients with cancer and delirium at an acute palliative care unit: a single-centre, double-blind, parallel-group, randomised trial

BACKGROUND

The role of neuroleptics for terminal agitated delirium is controversial. We assessed the effect of three neuroleptic strategies on refractory agitation in patients with cancer with terminal delirium.

METHODS

In this single-centre, double-blind, parallel-group, randomised trial, patients with advanced cancer, aged at least 18 years, admitted to the palliative and supportive care unit at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center (Houston, TX, USA), with refractory agitation, despite low-dose haloperidol, were randomly assigned to receive intravenous haloperidol dose escalation at 2 mg every 4 h, neuroleptic rotation with chlorpromazine at 25 mg every 4 h, or combined haloperidol at 1 mg and chlorpromazine at 12·5 mg every 4 h, until death or discharge. Rescue doses identical to the scheduled doses were administered at inception, and then hourly as needed. Permuted block randomisation (block size six; 1:1:1) was done, stratified by baseline Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale (RASS) scores. Research staff, clinicians, patients, and caregivers were masked to group assignment. The primary outcome was change in RASS score from time 0 to 24 h. Comparisons among group were done by modified intention-to-treat analysis. This completed study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03021486.

FINDINGS

Between July 5, 2017, and July 1, 2019, 998 patients were screened for eligibility, with 68 being enrolled and randomly assigned to treatment; 45 received the masked study interventions (escalation n=15, rotation n=16, combination n=14). RASS score decreased significantly within 30 min and remained low at 24 h in the escalation group (n=10, mean RASS score change between 0 h and 24 h -3·6 [95% CI -5·0 to -2·2]), rotation group (n=11, -3·3 [-4·4 to -2·2]), and combination group (n=10, -3·0 [-4·6 to -1·4]), with no difference among groups (p=0·71). The most common serious toxicity was hypotension (escalation n=6 [40%], rotation n=5 [31%], combination n=3 [21%]); there were no treatment-related deaths.

INTERPRETATION

Our data provide preliminary evidence that the three strategies of neuroleptics might reduce agitation in patients with terminal agitation. These findings are in the context of the single-centre design, small sample size, and lack of a placebo-only group.

FUNDING

National Institute of Nursing Research.

Benzodiazepines for agitation in patients with delirium: selecting the right patient, right time, and right indication

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To provide an evidence-based synopsis on the role of benzodiazepines in patients with agitated delirium.

RECENT FINDINGS

Existing evidence supports the use of benzodiazepines in two specific delirium settings: persistent agitation in patients with terminal delirium and delirium tremens. In the setting of terminal delirium, the goal of care is to maximize comfort, recognizing that patients are unlikely to recover from their delirium. A recent randomized trial suggests that lorazepam in combination with haloperidol as rescue medication was more effective than haloperidol alone for the management of persistent restlessness/agitation in patients with terminal delirium. In patients with refractory agitation, benzodiazepines may be administered as scheduled doses or continuous infusion for palliative sedation. Benzodiazepines also have an established role in management of delirium secondary to alcohol withdrawal. Outside of these two care settings, the role of benzodiazepine remains investigational and clinicians should exercise great caution because of the risks of precipitating or worsening delirium and over-sedation.

SUMMARY

Benzodiazepines are powerful medications associated with considerable risks and benefits. Clinicians may prescribe benzodiazepines skillfully by selecting the right medication at the right dose for the right indication to the right patient at the right time.