Brain nitric oxide synthase expression in the developing ferret lateral geniculate nucleus: analysis of time course, localization, and synaptic contacts

Two types of interneurons in the mouse lateral geniculate nucleus are characterized by different h-current density

Although hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation (HCN) channels and the corresponding h-current (I_h) have been shown to fundamentally shape the activity pattern in the thalamocortical network, little is known about their function in local circuit GABAergic interneurons (IN) of the dorsal part of the lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN). By combining electrophysiological, molecular biological, immunohistochemical and cluster analysis, we characterized the properties of I_h and the expression profile of HCN channels in IN. Passive and active electrophysiological properties of IN differed. Two subclasses of IN were resolved by unsupervised cluster analysis. Small cells were characterized by depolarized resting membrane potentials (RMP), stronger anomalous rectification, higher firing frequency of faster action potentials (APs), appearance of rebound bursting, and higher I_h current density compared to the large IN. The depolarization exerted by sustained HCN channel activity facilitated neuronal firing. In addition to cyclic nucleotides, I_h in IN was modulated by PIP₂ probably based on the abundant expression of the HCN3 isoform. Furthermore, only IN with larger cell diameters expressed neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). It is discussed that I_h in IN is modulated by neurotransmitters present in the thalamus and that the specific properties of I_h in these cells closely reflect their modulatory options.

Excitatory and anti-oscillatory actions of nitric oxide in thalamus

The dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) not only serves as the obligatory pathway for visual information transfer from the retina to neocortex but can also generate intrathalamic rhythmic activities associated with different arousal states and certain pathological conditions. The gating activity of thalamocortical circuits is under neuromodulatory control by various brainstem nuclei as well as intrinsic thalamic neurons (e.g. thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) neurons and dLGN interneurons). In this study, we examined the effect of the putative neuromodulator nitric oxide (NO) on thalamic neuron excitability. There are multiple potential sources of NO in thalamus: cholinergic terminals originating from brainstem nuclei, GABAergic TRN neurons, and local GABAergic interneurons. Using whole cell recording techniques in in vitro thalamic slices, we found that the NO donor SNAP produced a robust, long-lasting depolarization in TRN neurons, a weaker depolarization in thalamocortical relay neurons, and no effect in local interneurons. SNAP preferentially depolarized stereotypical TRN neurons that could produced strong burst discharge. In contrast, SNAP had little effect on atypical burst and non-burst TRN cells. The NO donor SIN-1 and the endogenous NO precursor, L-arginine, mimicked the SNAP-mediated actions. The NO-mediated depolarizations were blocked by the guanylyl cyclase inhibitor ODQ indicating involvement of the cGMP pathway. In addition, the phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor zaprinast depolarized and occluded the NO-mediated depolarization in TRN neurons. At the circuit level, NO activation significantly attenuated intrathalamic rhythmic activities likely resulting from the shifting of the firing mode of thalamic neurons, perhaps both TRN and thalamocortical neurons, from burst- to tonic-discharge mode. These alterations in thalamic neuron excitability not only change rhythmic circuit activity, but could also influence sensory information processing through thalamocortical circuits.

Cortex contacts both output neurons and nitrergic interneurons in the superior colliculus: direct and indirect routes for multisensory integration

The ability of cat superior colliculus (SC) neurons to integrate information from different senses is thought to depend on direct projections from regions along the anterior ectosylvian sulcus (AES). However, electrical stimulation of AES also activates SC output neurons polysynaptically. In the present study, we found that nitric oxide (NO)-containing (nitrergic) interneurons are a target of AES projections, forming a component of this cortico-SC circuitry. The dendritic and axonal processes of these corticorecipient nitrergic interneurons apposed the soma and dendrites of presumptive SC output neurons. Often, an individual cortical fiber targeted both an output neuron and a neighboring nitrergic interneuron that, in turn, contacted the output neuron. Many (46%) nitrergic neurons also colocalized with gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), suggesting that a substantial subset have the potential for inhibiting output neurons. These observations suggest that nitrergic interneurons are positioned to convey cortical influences onto SC output neurons disynaptically via nitrergic mechanisms as well as conventional neurotransmitter systems utilizing GABA and other, possibly excitatory, neurotransmitters. In addition, because NO also acts as a retrograde messenger, cortically mediated NO release from the postsynaptic elements of nitrergic interneurons could influence presynaptic cortico-SC terminals that directly contact output neurons.

Modulation of inhibitory activity by nitric oxide in the thalamus

The dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) is essential for the transfer of visual information from the retina to visual cortex, and inhibitory mechanisms can play a critical in regulating such information transfer. Nitric oxide (NO) is an atypical neuromodulator that is released in gaseous form and can alter neural activity without direct synaptic connections. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS), an essential enzyme for NO production, is localized in thalamic inhibitory neurons and cholinergic brain stem neurons that innervate the thalamus, although NO-mediated effects on thalamic inhibitory activity remain unknown. We investigated NO effects on inhibitory activity in dLGN using an in vitro slice preparation. The NO donor, SNAP, selectively potentiated the frequency, but not amplitude, of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) in thalamocortical relay neurons. This increase also persisted in tetrodotoxin (TTX), consistent with an increase in GABA release from presynaptic terminals. The SNAP-mediated actions were attenuated not only by the NO scavenger carboxy-PTIO but also by the guanylyl cyclase inhibitor ODQ. The endogenous NO precursor L-arginine produced actions similar to those of SNAP on sIPSC activity and these L-arginine-mediated actions were attenuated by the NOS inhibitor L-NMMA acetate. The SNAP-mediated increase in sIPSC activity was observed in both dLGN and ventrobasal thalamic nucleus (VB) neurons. Considering the lack of interneurons in rodent VB, the NO-mediated actions likely involve an increase in the output of axon terminals of thalamic reticular nucleus neurons. Our results indicate that NO upregulates thalamic inhibitory activity and thus these actions likely influence sensory information transfer through thalamocortical circuits.

Cortical feedback to the thalamus is selectively enhanced by nitric oxide

The brain somehow merges visual information with the behavioral context in which it is being processed, a task that is often attributed to the cerebral cortex. We have identified a new role of the gaseous neurotransmitter, nitric oxide (NO), in the early selective enhancement of corticogeniculate communication that may participate in this process at the level of the thalamus. Visual information is dynamically gated through the thalamus by brainstem neurons that release acetylcholine and NO. Using in vitro electrophysiology, we characterized NO effects on excitatory postsynaptic potentials and currents (EPSCs) elicited from retinal and cortical pathways in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the ferret. NO selectively and reversibly increased cortically-evoked postsynaptic responses, and this effect was mimicked by cyclic guanosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cGMP). Conversely, NO inhibited retinally-evoked responses independently of cGMP. We demonstrated that these differential effects were specific to postsynaptic N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors by studying treatment effects on pharmacologically isolated EPSCs from each pathway. We propose that when brainstem activity is increased during behavioral arousal or rapid eye movement sleep, NO may increase the relative sensitivity of relay neurons to corticogeniculate feedback. The net effect of these changes in synaptic processing may be to selectively suppress peripheral information while unifying data carried by reentrant corticogeniculate loops with the behavioral context in which the visual information is processed.

Thalamocortical cells in the cat pulvinar nucleus transiently express nitric oxide synthase during development

We examined the postnatal expression of the neuronal form of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) within the pulvinar and lateral posterior (LP) nuclei of the cat thalamus using immunocytochemical techniques. During the first postnatal month, nNOS was expressed in many cells within the pulvinar nucleus and medial subdivision of the LP nucleus; fewer neurons in the lateral LP nucleus were stained by the nNOS antibody. We examined the pulvinar nucleus to determine what cell types express nNOS. A comparison of the soma sizes of nNOS-stained cells to the overall population of Nissl-stained cells and interneurons (stained with an antibody against glutamic acid decarboxylase) suggests that within the pulvinar nucleus, thalamocortical cells express nNOS during development. In addition, the nNOS antibody stained axon bundles that traverse the pulvinar nucleus to enter the optic radiations, suggesting that thalamocortical cell axons also contain nNOS during development. However, this staining pattern was dramatically reduced by postnatal day 42 and later ages; the size of the remaining nNOS-stained cells was closer to that of interneurons, a subset of which contain nNOS in the adult pulvinar nucleus. This contrasts with our previous findings that nNOS is specifically expressed within interneurons in the developing dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and serves as further confirmation that the pulvinar nucleus and LGN represent distinct categories of thalamic nuclei.