Transient cortical pathways in the pyramidal tract of the neonatal ferret

Refinement of the Primate Corticospinal Pathway During Prenatal Development

Perturbation of the developmental refinement of the corticospinal (CS) pathway leads to motor disorders. While non-primate developmental refinement is well documented, in primates invasive investigations of the developing CS pathway have been confined to neonatal and postnatal stages when refinement is relatively modest. Here, we investigated the developmental changes in the distribution of CS projection neurons in cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Injections of retrograde tracer at cervical levels of the spinal cord at embryonic day (E) 95 and E105 show that: (i) areal distribution of back-labeled neurons is more extensive than in the neonate and dense labeling is found in prefrontal, limbic, temporal, and occipital cortex; (ii) distributions of contralateral and ipsilateral projecting CS neurons are comparable in terms of location and numbers of labeled neurons, in contrast to the adult where the contralateral projection is an order of magnitude higher than the ipsilateral projection. Findings from one largely restricted injection suggest a hitherto unsuspected early innervation of the gray matter. In the fetus there was in addition dense labeling in the central nucleus of the amygdala, the hypothalamus, the subthalamic nucleus, and the adjacent region of the zona incerta, subcortical structures with only minor projections in the adult control.

Development of spinal cord projections from neocortical transplants heterotopically placed in the neocortex of newborn hosts is highly dependent on the embryonic locus of origin of the graft

Previous experiments based on heterotopic transplantation paradigms have indicated that the distribution of efferents developed by layer V pyramidal cells seems to be related to where in the neocortex the cells develop and not to where they were generated. The present study was undertaken in an attempt to obtain a quantitative estimation of the weight of extrinsic factors in the development of neocortical efferents. Fragments of embryonic (E15-E19) frontal or occipital cortex were grafted homotopically or heterotopically into the frontal or occipital cortex of newborn rats. As adults, the hosts received an injection of a retrograde tracer into the pyramidal tract decussation, and the distribution of the subsequent cell labeling was examined in each category of transplant. The mean numbers of labeled cells were 725 in frontal-to-frontal transplants and 250 in frontal-to-occipital transplants. In occipital-to-frontal transplants, the numbers of labeled cells were extremely low, ranging from 0 to 14. Finally, as expected, practically no cell labeling was found in occipital-to-occipital transplants. Thus, transplants of presumptive frontal origin systematically develop and maintain in adulthood a spinal cord projection even though they are placed in the host occipital cortex. Conversely, transplants of presumptive occipital origin are practically incapable of maintaining a spinal cord projection in adulthood even though they are placed in the host frontal cortex. It seems, therefore, that the generation of regional differences in efferent connectivity found in the mature cortex depends on early regional specification within the neocortical neuroepithelium.

Occipital cortico-pyramidal projection in hypothyroid rats

It is well established that the progressive disappearance of a transient occipito-spinal projection in neonatal rats involves the selective elimination of axonal collaterals. We studied whether the development of the occipito-spinal pathway was affected by hypothyroidism induced by treatment with the goitrogen 6n-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) beginning prenatally. Using both anterograde (biocytin and Dil) and retrograde (horseradish peroxidase and Fast Blue) tracing techniques in adult hypothyroid rats, we found that many cells with projections into the pyramidal tract are present in regions of visual cortex that are devoid of such cells in normal adult rats. Our results suggest that hypothyroidism induced by PTU treatment leads to the maintenance of occipito-spinal projections that are normally transient.

Layer-specific programs of development in neocortical projection neurons

How are long-range axonal projections from the cerebral cortex orchestrated during development? By using both passively and actively transported axonal tracers in fetal and postnatal ferrets, we have analyzed the development of projections from the cortex to a number of thalamic nuclei. We report that the projections of a cortical area to its corresponding thalamic nuclei follow highly cell-specific programs of development. Axons from cells in the deepest layers of the cerebral cortex (layer 6 and superficial subplate neurons) appear to grow very slowly and be delayed for several weeks in the cerebral white matter, reaching the thalamus over a protracted period. Neurons of layer 5, on the other hand, develop their projections much faster; despite being born after the neurons of deeper layers, layer 5 neurons are the first to extend their axons out of the cortical hemisphere and innervate the thalamus. Layer 5 projections are massive in the first postnatal weeks but may become partly eliminated later in development, being overtaken in number by layer 6 cells that constitute the major corticothalamic projection by adulthood. Layer 5 projections are area-specific from the outset and arise as collateral branches of axons directed to the brainstem and spinal cord. Our findings show that the early development of corticofugal connections is determined not by the sequence of cortical neurogenesis but by developmental programs specific for each type of projection neuron. In addition, they demonstrate that in most thalamic nuclei, layer 5 neurons (and not subplate or layer 6 neurons) establish the first descending projections from the cerebral cortex.

Topographical organization in the early postnatal corticopontine projection: a carbocyanine dye and 3-D computer reconstruction study in the rat

We have explored basic rules guiding the early development of topographically organized projections, employing the rat corticopontine projection as a model system. Using anterograde in vivo tracing with 1,1',dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI), we studied the distribution of labelled fibers in the pontine nuclei in relation to cortical site of origin during the first postnatal week. Labelled corticopontine fibers enter the pontine nuclei in distinct, sharply defined zones. The putative terminal fibers typically occupy lamella-like subspaces. Related to changes in cortical site of origin, we describe mediolateral, internal to external, and caudorostral distribution gradients in the pontine nuclei. Fibers originating in the anterolateral cortex occupy an internal central core, while implantations at increasing distance from the anterolateral cortex produce 1) more externally located lamellae, and 2) a caudal to rostral shift in fiber location. Previous investigations have shown that pontocerebellar neurons migrate into the ventral pons in a temporal sequence (Altman and Bayer [1987] J. Comp. Neurol. 257:529). The earliest arriving neurons occupy the central core and later arriving neurons settle in more externally and rostrally located subspaces. We hypothesize that the earliest arriving corticopontine fibers grow into the then only available zone of pontocerebellar neurons (central core), attracted by a diffusible chemotropic cue. Later arriving fibers grow into correspondingly later and more externally and rostrally located contingents of pontocerebellar neurons. Thus, we propose that the topographical organization in the early postnatal corticopontine projection is determined by simple temporal and spatial gradients operative within source (cerebral cortex) and target region (pontine nuclei).

Transient subcortical connections of inferior temporal areas TE and TEO in infant macaque monkeys

As part of a long-term study designed to examine the ontogeny of visual memory in monkeys and its underlying neural circuitry, we have examined the subcortical connections of the inferior temporal cortex in infant monkeys and compared them to those previously described in adult monkeys (Webster et al. [1993] J. Comp. Neurol. 335:73-91). Inferior temporal areas TEO and TE were injected with wheat germ agglutinin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase and tritiated amino acids, respectively, or vice versa, in 1-week-old (N = 6) and 3-4-year-old (N = 6) Macaca mulatta, and the distributions of labeled cells and terminals were examined in subcortical structures. Although the connections of inferior temporal cortex with subcortical structures were found to be similar in infant and adult monkeys, several projections appear to undergo refinement during development. Quantitative analysis showed that 1) whereas the projection from TE to the superior colliculus is consistent (5 of 5 cases) and widespread in infants, it is less reliable (2 of 7 cases) and limited in areal extent in adults; 2) although the projections from TE to nucleus medialis dorsalis and the tail of the caudate are present in infants and adults, they are reduced in adults; and 3) TEO receives input from the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus in both infants and adults, but the number of cells giving rise to this projection is lower in adults. There was also a suggestion that TE projects to nucleus paracentralis in infants (2 of 5 cases) but not in adults (0 of 7 cases). No differences between infants and adults were apparent in other subcortical connections, including those with the pulvinar, reticular nucleus, claustrum, and putamen.

Development of specificity in corticospinal connections by axon collaterals branching selectively into appropriate spinal targets

Corticospinal projections in adult rodents arise exclusively from layer V neurons in the sensorimotor cortex. These neurons are topographically organized in their connections to spinal cord targets. Previous studies in rodents have shown that the mature distribution pattern of corticospinal neurons develops during the first 2 weeks postnatal from an initial widespread pattern that includes the visual cortex to a distribution restricted to the sensorimotor cortex. To determine whether specificity in corticospinal connections also emerges from an initially diffuse set of projections, we have studied the outgrowth of corticospinal axons and the formation of terminal arbors in developing hamsters. The sensitive fluorescent tracer 1,1',dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI) was used to label corticospinal axons from the visual cortex or from small regions of the forelimb or hindlimb sensorimotor cortex in living animals at 4-17 days postnatal. Initially axon outgrowth was imprecise. Some visual cortical axons extended transiently beyond their permanent targets in the pontine nuclei, by growing through the pyramidal decussation and in some cases extending as far caudally as the lumbar enlargement. Forelimb sensorimotor axons also extended past their targets in the cervical enlargement, in many cases growing in the corticospinal tract to lumbar levels of the cord. By about 17 days postnatal these misdirected axons or axon segments were withdrawn from the tract. Despite these errors in axon trajectories within the corticospinal tract, terminal arbors branching into targets in the spinal gray matter were topographically appropriate from the earliest stages of innervation. Thus visual cortical axons never formed connections in the spinal cord, forelimb sensorimotor axons arborized only in the cervical enlargement, and hindlimb cortical axons terminated only in the lumbar cord at all stages of development examined. Corticospinal arbors formed from collaterals that extended at right angles from the shafts of primary axons, most likely by the process of interstitial branching after the primary growth cone had extended past the target. Once collaterals extended into the spinal gray matter, highly branched terminal arbors formed within 2-4 days, beginning at about 4 and 8 days postnatal for the cervical and lumbar enlargements, respectively. These results show that specificity in corticospinal connectivity is achieved by selective growth of axon collaterals into appropriate spinal targets from the beginning and not by the later remodeling of initially diffuse connections. In contrast, errors occur in the initial outgrowth of axons in the corticospinal tract, which are subsequently corrected.

Protracted postnatal development of corticospinal projections from the primary motor cortex to hand motoneurones in the macaque monkey

We have studied the development of corticospinal projections from the hand area of the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord using anterograde transport of WGA-HRP. In the neonate, as in the adult, corticospinal projections to the intermediate zone at the C8/T1 spinal level were clearly present. However, in contrast to the adult, there was only very faint and barely visible labelling in the dorso-lateral motor nuclei which supply the hand muscles. No aberrant projections to other motor nuclei were seen. By 2.5 months, a ring of dense labelling was present around the dorso-lateral motor nuclei, but labelling was still sparse in the central region. This labelling was more pronounced at 11 months, but was still not as heavy as in the adult. There was no labelling among the ventral motoneurones at any age. The conduction velocity (c.v.) of the fastest corticospinal fibres was determined in each of the monkeys. There was an age-related increase in c.v. within the spinal cord. At birth, the fastest axons had a c.v. of only 8 m.s-1. At 11 months c.v. was still substantially slower (55 m.s-1) than the adult value of 73 m.s-1. In contrast, by 11 months, the axonal c.v. within the brain was close to the adult value, suggesting a rostro-caudal maturation of the corticospinal system. Our results demonstrate that corticospinal projections in the macaque monkey mature gradually over a period of at least 11 months, much longer than previously thought.