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Hoellerbauer P, Kufeld M, Arora S, Mitchell K, Girard E, Herman J, Olson J, Paddison P. FBXO42 activity is required to prevent mitotic arrest, spindle assembly checkpoint activation and lethality in glioblastoma and other cancers. NAR Cancer 2024; 6:zcae021. [PMID: 38774470 PMCID: PMC11106029 DOI: 10.1093/narcan/zcae021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive brain tumor in adults. To identify genes differentially required for the viability of GBM stem-like cells (GSCs), we performed functional genomic lethality screens comparing GSCs and control human neural stem cells. Among top-scoring hits in a subset of GBM cells was the F-box-containing gene FBXO42, which was also predicted to be essential in ∼15% of cell lines derived from a broad range of cancers. Mechanistic studies revealed that, in sensitive cells, FBXO42 activity prevents chromosome alignment defects, mitotic cell cycle arrest and cell death. The cell cycle arrest, but not the cell death, triggered by FBXO42 inactivation could be suppressed by brief exposure to a chemical inhibitor of Mps1, a key spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) kinase. FBXO42's cancer-essential function requires its F-box and Kelch domains, which are necessary for FBXO42's substrate recognition and targeting by SCF (SKP1-CUL1-F-box protein) ubiquitin ligase complex. However, none of FBXO42's previously proposed targets, including ING4, p53 and RBPJ, were responsible for the observed phenotypes. Instead, our results suggest that FBOX42 alters the activity of one or more proteins that perturb chromosome-microtubule dynamics in cancer cells, which in turn leads to induction of the SAC and cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Hoellerbauer
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
| | - Megan Kufeld
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
| | - Sonali Arora
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
| | - Kelly Mitchell
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
| | - Emily J Girard
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, 98101 USA
| | - Jacob A Herman
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
| | - James M Olson
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, 98101 USA
| | - Patrick J Paddison
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
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2
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Noll A, Myers C, Biery MC, Meechan M, Tahiri S, Rajendran A, Berens ME, Paine D, Byron S, Zhang J, Winter C, Pakiam F, Leary SES, Cole BL, Jackson ER, Dun MD, Foster JB, Evans MK, Pattwell SS, Olson JM, Vitanza NA. Therapeutic HDAC inhibition in hypermutant diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Neoplasia 2023; 43:100921. [PMID: 37603953 PMCID: PMC10465940 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2023.100921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Constitutional mismatch repair deficiency (CMMRD) is a cancer predisposition syndrome associated with the development of hypermutant pediatric high-grade glioma, and confers a poor prognosis. While therapeutic histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition of diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) has been reported; here, we use a clinically relevant biopsy-derived hypermutant DIPG model (PBT-24FH) and a CRISPR-Cas9 induced genetic model to evaluate the efficacy of HDAC inhibition against hypermutant DIPG. We screened PBT-24FH cells for sensitivity to a panel of HDAC inhibitors (HDACis) in vitro, identifying two HDACis associated with low nanomolar IC50s, quisinostat (27 nM) and romidepsin (2 nM). In vivo, quisinostat proved more efficacious, inducing near-complete tumor regression in a PBT-24FH flank model. RNA sequencing revealed significant quisinostat-driven changes in gene expression, including upregulation of neural and pro-inflammatory genes. To validate the observed potency of quisinostat in vivo against additional hypermutant DIPG models, we tested quisinostat in genetically-induced mismatch repair (MMR)-deficient DIPG flank tumors, demonstrating that loss of MMR function increases sensitivity to quisinostat in vivo. Here, we establish the preclinical efficacy of quisinostat against hypermutant DIPG, supporting further investigation of epigenetic targeting of hypermutant pediatric cancers with the potential for clinical translation. These findings support further investigation of HDAC inhibitors against pontine high-grade gliomas, beyond only those with histone mutations, as well as against other hypermutant central nervous system tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Noll
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA; Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program and Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Carrie Myers
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Matthew C Biery
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Michael Meechan
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sophie Tahiri
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Molecular Mechanisms of Disease Graduate Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Asmitha Rajendran
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Biomedical Informatics and Medical Education Graduate Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Michael E Berens
- Cancer & Cell Biology Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen), Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Danyelle Paine
- Cancer & Cell Biology Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen), Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Sara Byron
- Integrated Cancer Genomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen), Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Jiaming Zhang
- Integrated Cancer Genomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen), Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Conrad Winter
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Fiona Pakiam
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sarah E S Leary
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children's Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Bonnie L Cole
- Department of Laboratories, Seattle Children's Hospital, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Evangeline R Jackson
- Cancer Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; Precision Medicine Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia
| | - Matthew D Dun
- Cancer Signalling Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; Precision Medicine Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia; Paediatric Program, Mark Hughes Foundation Centre for Brain Cancer Research, College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Jessica B Foster
- Division of Oncology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philidelphia, PA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Myron K Evans
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children's Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Siobhan S Pattwell
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children's Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - James M Olson
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children's Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Nicholas A Vitanza
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children's Hospital, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA.
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Lin KH, Zhu JJ, Smith JA, Kim Y, Jiang X. An End-to-end In-Silico and In-Vitro Drug Repurposing Pipeline for Glioblastoma. IEEE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HEALTHCARE INFORMATICS. IEEE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HEALTHCARE INFORMATICS 2023; 2023:738-745. [PMID: 38516034 PMCID: PMC10956733 DOI: 10.1109/ichi57859.2023.00135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Our study aims to address the challenges in drug development for glioblastoma, a highly aggressive brain cancer with poor prognosis. We propose a computational framework that utilizes machine learning-based propensity score matching to estimate counterfactual treatment effects and predict synergistic effects of drug combinations. Through our in-silico analysis, we identified promising drug candidates and drug combinations that warrant further investigation. To validate these computational findings, we conducted in-vitro experiments on two GBM cell lines, U87 and T98G. The experimental results demonstrated that some of the identified drugs and drug combinations indeed exhibit strong suppressive effects on GBM cell growth. Our end-to-end pipeline showcases the feasibility of integrating computational models with biological experiments to expedite drug repurposing and discovery efforts. By bridging the gap between in-silico analysis and in-vitro validation, we demonstrate the potential of this approach to accelerate the development of novel and effective treatments for glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko-Hong Lin
- School of Biomedical Informatics, University of Texas Health, Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jay-Jiguang Zhu
- McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health, Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Judith A Smith
- McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health, Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Yejin Kim
- School of Biomedical Informatics, University of Texas Health, Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Xiaoqian Jiang
- School of Biomedical Informatics, University of Texas Health, Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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Herman JA, Arora S, Carter L, Zhu J, Biggins S, Paddison PJ. Functional dissection of human mitotic genes using CRISPR-Cas9 tiling screens. Genes Dev 2022; 36:495-510. [PMID: 35483740 PMCID: PMC9067404 DOI: 10.1101/gad.349319.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
In this Resource/Methodology, Herman et al. developed a method that leverages CRISPR–Cas9-induced mutations across protein-coding genes for the a priori identification of functional regions at the sequence level. As a test case, they applied this method to 48 human mitotic genes, revealing hundreds of regions required for cell proliferation, including domains that were experimentally characterized, ones that were predicted based on homology, and novel ones. The identity of human protein-coding genes is well known, yet our in-depth knowledge of their molecular functions and domain architecture remains limited by shortcomings in homology-based predictions and experimental approaches focused on whole-gene depletion. To bridge this knowledge gap, we developed a method that leverages CRISPR–Cas9-induced mutations across protein-coding genes for the a priori identification of functional regions at the sequence level. As a test case, we applied this method to 48 human mitotic genes, revealing hundreds of regions required for cell proliferation, including domains that were experimentally characterized, ones that were predicted based on homology, and novel ones. We validated screen outcomes for 15 regions, including amino acids 387–402 of Mad1, which were previously uncharacterized but contribute to Mad1 kinetochore localization and chromosome segregation fidelity. Altogether, we demonstrate that CRISPR–Cas9-based tiling mutagenesis identifies key functional domains in protein-coding genes de novo, which elucidates separation of function mutants and allows functional annotation across the human proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Herman
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA.,Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | - Sonali Arora
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | - Lucas Carter
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | - Jun Zhu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | - Sue Biggins
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | - Patrick J Paddison
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
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Thirmanne HN, Wu F, Janssens DH, Swanger J, Diab A, Feldman H, Amezquita RA, Gottardo R, Paddison PJ, Henikoff S, Clurman BE. Global and context-specific transcriptional consequences of oncogenic Fbw7 mutations. eLife 2022; 11:74338. [PMID: 35225231 PMCID: PMC8926403 DOI: 10.7554/elife.74338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The Fbw7 ubiquitin ligase targets many proteins for proteasomal degradation, which include oncogenic transcription factors (TFs) (e.g., c-Myc, c-Jun, and Notch). Fbw7 is a tumor suppressor and tumors often contain mutations in FBXW7, the gene that encodes Fbw7. The complexity of its substrate network has obscured the mechanisms of Fbw7-associated tumorigenesis, yet this understanding is needed for developing therapies. We used an integrated approach employing RNA-Seq and high-resolution mapping (cleavage under target and release using nuclease) of histone modifications and TF occupancy (c-Jun and c-Myc) to examine the combinatorial effects of misregulated Fbw7 substrates in colorectal cancer (CRC) cells with engineered tumor-associated FBXW7 null or missense mutations. Both Fbw7 mutations caused widespread transcriptional changes associated with active chromatin and altered TF occupancy: some were common to both Fbw7 mutant cell lines, whereas others were mutation specific. We identified loci where both Jun and Myc were coregulated by Fbw7, suggesting that substrates may have synergistic effects. One coregulated gene was CIITA, the master regulator of MHC Class II gene expression. Fbw7 loss increased MHC Class II expression and Fbw7 mutations were correlated with increased CIITA expression in TCGA colorectal tumors and cell lines, which may have immunotherapeutic implications for Fbw7-associated cancers. Analogous studies in neural stem cells in which FBXW7 had been acutely deleted closely mirrored the results in CRC cells. Gene set enrichment analyses revealed Fbw7-associated pathways that were conserved across both cell types that may reflect fundamental Fbw7 functions. These analyses provide a framework for understanding normal and neoplastic context-specific Fbw7 functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Feinan Wu
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Resource, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Derek H Janssens
- Basic Science Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Jherek Swanger
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Ahmed Diab
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Heather Feldman
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Robert A Amezquita
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Raphael Gottardo
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Patrick J Paddison
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Steven Henikoff
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Bruce E Clurman
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
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Codrici E, Popescu ID, Tanase C, Enciu AM. Friends with Benefits: Chemokines, Glioblastoma-Associated Microglia/Macrophages, and Tumor Microenvironment. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052509. [PMID: 35269652 PMCID: PMC8910233 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma is the most common primary intracranial tumor and has the greatest prevalence of all brain tumors. Treatment resistance and tumor recurrence in GBM are mostly explained by considerable alterations within the tumor microenvironment, as well as extraordinary cellular and molecular heterogeneity. Soluble factors, extracellular matrix components, tissue-resident cell types, resident or newly recruited immune cells together make up the GBM microenvironment. Regardless of many immune cells, a profound state of tumor immunosuppression is supported and developed, posing a considerable hurdle to cancer cells' immune-mediated destruction. Several studies have suggested that various GBM subtypes present different modifications in their microenvironment, although the importance of the microenvironment in treatment response has yet to be determined. Understanding the microenvironment and how it changes after therapies is critical because it can influence the remaining invasive GSCs and lead to recurrence. This review article sheds light on the various components of the GBM microenvironment and their roles in tumoral development, as well as immune-related biological processes that support the interconnection/interrelationship between different cell types. Also, we summarize the current understanding of the modulation of soluble factors and highlight the dysregulated inflammatory chemokine/specific receptors cascades/networks and their significance in tumorigenesis, cancer-related inflammation, and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Codrici
- Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology, 050096 Bucharest, Romania;
- Correspondence: (E.C.); (I.-D.P.); (A.-M.E.)
| | - Ionela-Daniela Popescu
- Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology, 050096 Bucharest, Romania;
- Correspondence: (E.C.); (I.-D.P.); (A.-M.E.)
| | - Cristiana Tanase
- Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology, 050096 Bucharest, Romania;
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Titu Maiorescu University, 031593 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Ana-Maria Enciu
- Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology, 050096 Bucharest, Romania;
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Correspondence: (E.C.); (I.-D.P.); (A.-M.E.)
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Hoellerbauer P, Kufeld M, Arora S, Wu H, Feldman HM, Paddison PJ. A simple and highly efficient method for multi-allelic CRISPR-Cas9 editing in primary cell cultures. Cancer Rep (Hoboken) 2020; 3:e1269. [PMID: 32721120 PMCID: PMC7685144 DOI: 10.1002/cnr2.1269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND CRISPR-Cas9-based technologies have revolutionized experimental manipulation of mammalian genomes. None-the-less, limitations of the delivery and efficacy of these technologies restrict their application in primary cells. AIMS To create an optimized protocol for penetrant, reproducible, and fast targeted genome editing in cell cultures derived from primary cells, using patient-derived glioblastoma stem-like cells (GSCs) and human neural stem/progenitor cells (NSCs) for proof-of-concept experiments. METHODS AND RESULTS We employed transient nucleofection of Cas9:sgRNA ribonucleoprotein complexes composed of chemically synthesized 2'-O-methyl 3'phosphorothioate-modified sgRNAs and purified Cas9 protein. Insertion-deletion mutation (indel) frequency and size distribution were measured via computational deconvolution of Sanger sequencing trace data. We found that this optimized technique routinely allows for >90% indel formation in only 3 days, without the need to create clonal lines for simple loss-of-function experiments. Using Western blotting, we observed near-total protein loss of target genes in cell pools. Additionally, we found that this approach allows for the creation of targeted genomic deletions. Furthermore, by using RNA-seq in edited NSCs to assess gene expression changes resulting from knockout of tumor suppressors commonly altered in glioblastoma, we also demonstrated the utility of this method for quickly creating a series of gene knockouts that allow for the study of oncogenic activities. CONCLUSION Our data suggest that this relatively simple method can be used for highly efficient and fast gene knockout, as well as for targeted genomic deletions, even in hyperdiploid cells (such as GSCs). This represents an extremely useful tool for the cancer research community when wishing to inactivate not only coding genes, but also non-coding RNAs, UTRs, enhancers, and promoters. This method can be readily applied to diverse cell types by varying the nucleofection conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Hoellerbauer
- Human Biology DivisionFred Hutchinson Cancer Research CenterSeattleWashingtonUSA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology ProgramUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Megan Kufeld
- Human Biology DivisionFred Hutchinson Cancer Research CenterSeattleWashingtonUSA
- Antibody DiscoverySeattle GeneticsBothellWashingtonUSA
| | - Sonali Arora
- Human Biology DivisionFred Hutchinson Cancer Research CenterSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Hua‐Jun Wu
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational BiologyDana‐Farber Cancer Institute, and Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public HealthBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Heather M. Feldman
- Human Biology DivisionFred Hutchinson Cancer Research CenterSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Patrick J. Paddison
- Human Biology DivisionFred Hutchinson Cancer Research CenterSeattleWashingtonUSA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology ProgramUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashingtonUSA
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