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Zhang X, Mariano CF, Ando Y, Shen K. Bioengineering tools for probing intracellular events in T lymphocytes. WIREs Mech Dis 2020; 13:e1510. [PMID: 33073545 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
T lymphocytes are the central coordinator and executor of many immune functions. The activation and function of T lymphocytes are mediated through the engagement of cell surface receptors and regulated by a myriad of intracellular signaling network. Bioengineering tools, including imaging modalities and fluorescent probes, have been developed and employed to elucidate the cellular events throughout the functional lifespan of T cells. A better understanding of these events can broaden our knowledge in the immune systems biology, as well as accelerate the development of effective diagnostics and immunotherapies. Here we review the commonly used and recently developed techniques and probes for monitoring T lymphocyte intracellular events, following the order of intracellular events in T cells from activation, signaling, metabolism to apoptosis. The techniques introduced here can be broadly applied to other immune cells and cell systems. This article is categorized under: Immune System Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Immune System Diseases > Biomedical Engineering Infectious Diseases > Biomedical Engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyuan Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Chelsea F Mariano
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Yuta Ando
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Keyue Shen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.,USC Stem Cell, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Heimer S, Knoll G, Neubert P, Hammer KP, Wagner S, Bauer RJ, Jantsch J, Ehrenschwender M. Hypertonicity counteracts MCL-1 and renders BCL-XL a synthetic lethal target in head and neck cancer. FEBS J 2020; 288:1822-1838. [PMID: 32710568 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an aggressive and difficult-to-treat cancer entity. Current therapies ultimately aim to activate the mitochondria-controlled (intrinsic) apoptosis pathway, but complex alterations in intracellular signaling cascades and the extracellular microenvironment hamper treatment response. On the one hand, proteins of the BCL-2 family set the threshold for cell death induction and prevent accidental cellular suicide. On the other hand, controlling a cell's readiness to die also determines whether malignant cells are sensitive or resistant to anticancer treatments. Here, we show that HNSCC cells upregulate the proapoptotic BH3-only protein NOXA in response to hyperosmotic stress. Induction of NOXA is sufficient to counteract the antiapoptotic properties of MCL-1 and switches HNSCC cells from dual BCL-XL/MCL-1 protection to exclusive BCL-XL addiction. Hypertonicity-induced functional loss of MCL-1 renders BCL-XL a synthetically lethal target in HNSCC, and inhibition of BCL-XL efficiently kills HNSCC cells that poorly respond to conventional therapies. We identify hypertonicity-induced upregulation of NOXA as link between osmotic pressure in the tumor environment and mitochondrial priming, which could perspectively be exploited to boost efficacy of anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Heimer
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Gertrud Knoll
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Patrick Neubert
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Karin P Hammer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Wagner
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Richard J Bauer
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.,Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Center for Medical Biotechnology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jonathan Jantsch
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Martin Ehrenschwender
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Knoll G, Riffelsberger P, Raats D, Kranenburg O, Ehrenschwender M. NOXA-dependent contextual synthetic lethality of BCL-XL inhibition and "osmotic reprogramming" in colorectal cancer. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:257. [PMID: 32312973 PMCID: PMC7171071 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-2446-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A sophisticated network of BCL-2 family proteins regulates the mitochondria-associated (intrinsic) apoptosis pathway. Antiapoptotic members such as BCL-XL or MCL-1 safeguard the outer mitochondrial membrane and prevent accidental cell death in a functionally redundant and/or compensatory manner. However, BCL-XL/MCL-1-mediated “dual apoptosis protection” also impairs response of cancer cells to chemotherapy. Here, we show that hyperosmotic stress in the tumor environment abrogates dual BCL-XL/MCL-1 protection. Hypertonicity triggers upregulation of NOXA and loss of MCL-1 and thereby enforces exclusive BCL-XL addiction. Concomitant targeting of BCL-XL is sufficient to unlock the intrinsic apoptosis pathway in colorectal cancer cells. Functionally, “osmotic reprogramming” of the tumor environment grants contextual synthetic lethality to BCL-XL inhibitors in dually BCL-XL/MCL-1-protected cells. Generation of contextual synthetic lethality through modulation of the tumor environment could perspectively boost efficacy of anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gertrud Knoll
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Petra Riffelsberger
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Danielle Raats
- Department of Surgical Oncology, UMC Utrecht Cancer Centre, PO Box 85500, 3506 GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Onno Kranenburg
- Department of Surgical Oncology, UMC Utrecht Cancer Centre, PO Box 85500, 3506 GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Ehrenschwender
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
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A Role for H 2O 2 and TRPM2 in the Induction of Cell Death: Studies in KGN Cells. Antioxidants (Basel) 2019; 8:antiox8110518. [PMID: 31671815 PMCID: PMC6912327 DOI: 10.3390/antiox8110518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies showed that KGN cells, derived from a human granulosa cell tumor (GCT), express NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4), an important source of H2O2. Transient receptor potential melastatin 2 (TRPM2) channel is a Ca2+ permeable cation channel that can be activated by H2O2 and plays an important role in cellular functions. It is also able to promote susceptibility to cell death. We studied expression and functionality of TRPM2 in KGN cells and examined GCT tissue microarrays (TMAs) to explore in vivo relevance. We employed live cell, calcium and mitochondrial imaging, viability assays, fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. We confirmed that KGN cells produce H2O2 and found that they express functional TRPM2. H2O2 increased intracellular Ca2+ levels and N-(p-Amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid (ACA), a TRPM2 inhibitor, blocked this action. H2O2 caused mitochondrial fragmentation and apoptotic cell death, which could be attenuated by a scavenger (Trolox). Immunohistochemistry showed parallel expression of NOX4 and TRPM2 in all 73 tumor samples examined. The results suggest that GCTs can be endowed with a system that may convey susceptibility to cell death. If so, induction of oxidative stress may be beneficial in GCT therapy. Our results also imply a therapeutic potential for TRPM2 as a drug target in GCTs.
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Chen Y, Wang L, Zhang Y, Zhou Y, Wei W, Wan Z. The Effect of Therapeutic Mild Hypothermia on Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells During Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury. Neurocrit Care 2019; 28:379-387. [PMID: 29327153 DOI: 10.1007/s12028-017-0486-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To determine the cerebral protective effects of mild hypothermia (MH) on cerebral microcirculation. METHODS We established ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury and MH treatment models with rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (RBMECs) in vitro and examined the apoptotic changes. The cultured RBMECs were randomly divided into the control group, I/R group, and MH group, which was further divided into two subgroups: intra-ischemia hypothermia (IIH) and post-ischemia hypothermia (PIH). Cell morphological changes were assessed using fluorescence microscopy. Apoptotic rates were obtained by flow cytometry. Expressions of caspase-3, Bax, and Bcl-2 were analyzed by Western blot. RESULTS I/R injury in vitro induced apoptosis of RBMECs. The apoptotic rates in the control group, I/R group, and MH group were 0.13, 19.04, and 13.13%, respectively (P < 0.01). Compared with the I/R group, the MH group showed a significant decrease in the number of apoptotic cells, mainly in stage I apoptotic cells (P < 0.0083). The caspase-3 and Bax expressions were significantly enhanced (P < 0.05) in RBMECs after I/R injury, while substantial decreases in Bcl-2 expression were noted (P < 0.05). Following MH intervention, the increase in caspase-3 and Bax expression was suppressed (P < 0.05), while Bcl-2 expression significantly increased. The apoptotic rates or protein expressions between the two subgroups were not different significantly (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that MH could inhibit RBMEC apoptosis by preventing pro-apoptotic cells and early apoptotic cells from progressing to intermediate and advanced stages. This may be due to the effect of MH on I/R-induced apoptotic gene expression changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Chen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guoxue Road, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Chengdu Shangjin Jin Nanfu Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Yun Zhang
- Department of Emergency, Wuxi People's Hospital, NanJing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Yaxiong Zhou
- Department of Emergency Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guoxue Road, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Department of Emergency Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guoxue Road, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhi Wan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37 Guoxue Road, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China.
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Raptinal bypasses BAX, BAK, and BOK for mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization and intrinsic apoptosis. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:556. [PMID: 31324752 PMCID: PMC6642130 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1790-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Most antineoplastic chemotherapies eliminate cancer cells through activation of the mitochondria-controlled intrinsic apoptotic pathway. Therein, BAX, BAK, and/or BOK function as the essential pore-forming executioners of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). The activation threshold of BAX and BAK also correlates inversely with the required strength of an apoptotic stimulus to induce MOMP and thereby effectively determines a cell’s readiness to undergo apoptosis. Consequently, the ‘gatekeepers’ BAX and BAK emerged as therapeutic targets, but functional or genetic loss renders BAX/BAK-targeting strategies prone to fail. Here, we show that the small molecule Raptinal overcomes this limitation by triggering cytochrome c release in a BAX/BAK/BOK-independent manner. Raptinal exerts a dual cytotoxic effect on cancer cells by rapid activation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway and simultaneous shutdown of mitochondrial function. Together with its efficacy to eliminate cancer cells in vivo, Raptinal could be useful in difficult-to-treat cancer entities harboring defects in the intrinsic apoptosis pathway.
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Manatunga DC, de Silva RM, de Silva KMN, Wijeratne DT, Malavige GN, Williams G. Fabrication of 6-gingerol, doxorubicin and alginate hydroxyapatite into a bio-compatible formulation: enhanced anti-proliferative effect on breast and liver cancer cells. Chem Cent J 2018; 12:119. [PMID: 30470922 PMCID: PMC6768026 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-018-0482-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ample attention has been devoted to the construction of anti-cancer drug delivery systems with increased stability, and controlled and targeted delivery, minimizing toxic effects. In this study we have designed a magnetically attractive hydroxyapatite (m-HAP) based alginate polymer bound nanocarrier to perform targeted, controlled and pH sensitive drug release of 6-gingerol, doxorubicin, and their combination, preferably at low pH environments (pH 5.3). They have exhibited higher encapsulation efficiency which is in the range of 97.4-98.9% for both 6-gingerol and doxorubicin molecules whereas the co-loading has accounted for a value of 81.87 ± 0.32%. Cell proliferation assays, fluorescence imaging and flow cytometric analysis, demonstrated the remarkable time and dose responsive anti-proliferative effect of drug loaded nanoparticles on MCF-7 cells and HEpG2 cells compared with their neat counter parts. Also, these systems have exhibited significantly reduced toxic effects on non-targeted, non-cancerous cells in contrast to the excellent ability to selectively kill cancerous cells. This study has suggested that this HAP based system is a versatile carrier capable of loading various drug molecules, ultimately producing a profound anti-proliferative effect.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rohini M. de Silva
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colombo, Colombo, 00300 Sri Lanka
| | - K. M. Nalin de Silva
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colombo, Colombo, 00300 Sri Lanka
- Sri Lanka Institute of Nanotechnology (SLINTEC), Nanotechnology & Science Park, Mahenwatte, Pitipana, Homagama, 10206 Sri Lanka
| | - Dulharie T. Wijeratne
- Centre for Dengue Research, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, 10250 Sri Lanka
| | - Gathsaurie Neelika Malavige
- Centre for Dengue Research, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, 10250 Sri Lanka
| | - Gareth Williams
- UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London, WC1N 1AX UK
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Hypertonicity-imposed BCL-XL addiction primes colorectal cancer cells for death. Cancer Lett 2018; 435:23-31. [PMID: 30075205 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2018.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Induction of mitochondria-controlled (intrinsic) apoptosis is a mainstay of current anti-neoplastic chemotherapies. Activation of this death pathway is counteracted by BCL-2-like proteins, which functionally set the threshold for apoptosis and determine whether malignant cells are sensitive or resistant to anti-cancer treatments. Hence, unlocking the intrinsic apoptotic cascade and promoting the cell's commitment to undergo apoptosis concordantly promotes efficacy of anti-cancer treatments. Here, we show that hyperosmotic stress enforces addiction of colorectal cancer cells to BCL-XL, thereby exhausting the protective capacity of BCL-2-like proteins and priming mitochondria for death. Our work identifies osmotic pressure as a cell extrinsic factor that modulates responsiveness of colorectal cancer cells to therapy.
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