Stability and dynamics of cyclic diguanylic acid in solution

Analysis of proton wires in the enzyme active site suggests a mechanism of c-di-GMP hydrolysis by the EAL domain phosphodiesterases

We report for the first time a hydrolysis mechanism of the cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) by the EAL domain phosphodiesterases as revealed by molecular simulations. A model system for the enzyme-substrate complex was prepared on the base of the crystal structure of the EAL domain from the BlrP1 protein complexed with c-di-GMP. The nucleophilic hydroxide generated from the bridging water molecule appeared in a favorable position for attack on the phosphorus atom of c-di-GMP. The most difficult task was to find a pathway for a proton transfer to the O3' atom of c-di-GMP to promote the O3'P bond cleavage. We show that the hydrogen bond network extended over the chain of water molecules in the enzyme active site and the Glu359 and Asp303 side chains provides the relevant proton wires. The suggested mechanism is consistent with the structural, mutagenesis, and kinetic experimental studies on the EAL domain phosphodiesterases. Proteins 2016; 84:1670-1680. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Oligomer formation of the bacterial second messenger c-di-GMP: reaction rates and equilibrium constants indicate a monomeric state at physiological concentrations

Cyclic diguanosine-monophosphate (c-di-GMP) is a bacterial signaling molecule that triggers a switch from motile to sessile bacterial lifestyles. This mechanism is of considerable pharmaceutical interest, since it is related to bacterial virulence, biofilm formation, and persistence of infection. Previously, c-di-GMP has been reported to display a rich polymorphism of various oligomeric forms at millimolar concentrations, which differ in base stacking and G-quartet interactions. Here, we have analyzed the equilibrium and exchange kinetics between these various forms by NMR spectroscopy. We find that the association of the monomer into a dimeric form is in fast exchange (<milliseconds) with an equilibrium constant of about 1 mM. At concentrations above 100 μM, higher oligomers are formed in the presence of cations. These are presumably tetramers and octamers, with octamers dominating above about 0.5 mM. Thus, at the low micromolar concentrations of the cellular environment and in the absence of additional compounds that stabilize oligomers, c-di-GMP should be predominantly monomeric. This finding has important implications for the understanding of c-di-GMP recognition by protein receptors. In contrast to the monomer/dimer exchange, formation and dissociation of higher oligomers occurs on a time scale of several hours to days. The time course can be described quantitatively by a simple kinetic model where tetramers are intermediates of octamer formation. The extremely slow oligomer dissociation may generate severe artifacts in biological experiments when c-di-GMP is diluted from concentrated stock solution. We present a simple method to quantify c-di-GMP monomers and oligomers from UV spectra and a procedure to dissolve the unwanted oligomers by an annealing step.