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Song X, Man J, Qiu Y, Wang J, Liu J, Li R, Zhang Y, Li J, Li J, Chen Y. High-density zwitterionic polymer brushes exhibit robust lubrication properties and high antithrombotic efficacy in blood-contacting medical devices. Acta Biomater 2024; 178:111-123. [PMID: 38423351 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2024.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
High-performance catheters are essential for interventional surgeries, requiring reliable anti-adhesive and lubricated surfaces. This article develops a strategy for constructing high-density sulfobetaine zwitterionic polymer brushes on the surface of catheters, utilizing dopamine and sodium alginate as the primary intermediate layers, where dopamine provides mussel-protein-like adhesion to anchor the polymer brushes to the catheter surface. Hydroxyl-rich sodium alginate increases the number of grafting sites and improves the grafting mass by more than 4 times. The developed high-density zwitterionic polymer brushes achieve long-lasting and effective lubricity (μ<0.0078) and are implanted in rabbits for four hours without bio-adhesion and thrombosis in the absence of anticoagulants such as heparin. Experiments and molecular dynamics simulations demonstrate that graft mass plays a decisive role in the lubricity and anti-adhesion of polymer brushes, and it is proposed to predict the anti-adhesion of polymer brushes by their lubricity to avoid costly and time-consuming bioassays during the development of amphoteric polymer brushes. A quantitative influence of hydration in the anti-adhesion properties of amphiphilic polymer brushes is also revealed. Thus, this study provides a new approach to safe, long-lasting lubrication and anticoagulant surface modification for medical devices in contact with blood. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: High friction and bioadhesion on medical device surfaces can pose a significant risk to patients. In response, we have developed a safer, simpler, and more application-specific surface modification strategy that addresses both the lubrication and anti-bioadhesion needs of medical device surfaces. We used dopamine and sodium alginate as intermediate layers to drastically increase the grafting density of the zwitterionic brushes and enabled the modified surfaces to have an extremely low coefficient of friction (μ = 0.0078) and to remain non-bioadhesive for 4 hours in vivo. Furthermore, we used molecular dynamics simulations to gain insight into the mechanisms behind the superior anti-adhesion properties of the high-density polymer brushes. Our work contributes to the development and application of surface-modified coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinzhong Song
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China; Key National Demonstration Center for Experimental Mechanical Engineering Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China
| | - Jia Man
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China; Key National Demonstration Center for Experimental Mechanical Engineering Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China.
| | - Yinghua Qiu
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China; Key National Demonstration Center for Experimental Mechanical Engineering Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China
| | - Jiali Wang
- Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China
| | - Jianing Liu
- Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China
| | - Ruijian Li
- Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China
| | - Yongqi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China; Key National Demonstration Center for Experimental Mechanical Engineering Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China
| | - Jianyong Li
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China; Key National Demonstration Center for Experimental Mechanical Engineering Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China
| | - Jianfeng Li
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China; Key National Demonstration Center for Experimental Mechanical Engineering Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, PR China
| | - Yuguo Chen
- Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China
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2
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Han T, Zhao M, Sun C, Zhao R, Xu W, Zhang S, Singh S, Luo J, Zhang C. Macroscale Superlubricity of Hydrated Anions in the Boundary Lubrication Regime. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:42094-42103. [PMID: 37625155 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c09277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Cations can achieve excellent hydration lubrication at smooth interfaces under both microscale and macroscale conditions due to the boundary layer composed of hydration shells surrounding charges, but what about anions? Commonly used friction pairs are negatively charged at the solid/solution interface. Achieving anionic adsorption through constructing positively charged surfaces is a prerequisite for studying the hydration lubrication of anions. Here we report the hydration layer composed of anions adsorbed on the positively charged polymer/sapphire interface at acidic electrolyte solutions with pH below the isoelectric point, which contributes to the hydration lubrication of anions. Strongly hydrated anions (for the case of SO42-) exhibit stable superlubricity comparable to cations, with strikingly low boundary friction coefficient of 0.003-0.007 under contact pressures above 15 MPa without a running-in period. The hydration lubrication performance of anions is determined by both the ionic hydration strength and ion adsorption density based on the surface potential and tribological experiments. The results shed light on the role of anions in superlubricity and hydration lubrication, which may be relevant for understanding the lubrication mechanism and improving lubrication performance in acidic environments, for example, in acid pumps, sealing rings of compressors for handling acidic media, and processing devices of nuclear waste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyi Han
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Mingbo Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Chuan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ruiqi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Wanxing Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shumin Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Long-life Technology of Precise Rotation and Transmission Mechanisms, Beijing Institute of Control Engineering, Beijing 100094, China
| | - Sudesh Singh
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sharda School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, India
| | - Jianbin Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Chenhui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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3
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Role of anion size in the electrochemical performance of a Poly(thionine) redox conductive polymer using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. POLYMER 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2022.125291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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4
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Amadu M, Miadonye A. Applicability of the linearized Poisson-Boltzmann theory to contact angle problems and application to the carbon dioxide-brine-solid systems. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5710. [PMID: 35383219 PMCID: PMC8983767 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09178-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In colloidal science and bioelectrostatics, the linear Poisson Boltzmann equation (LPBE) has been used extensively for the calculation of potential and surface charge density. Its fundamental assumption rests on the premises of low surface potential. In the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide in saline aquifers, very low pH conditions coupled with adsorption induced reduction of surface charge density result in low pH conditions that fit into the LPB theory. In this work, the Gouy–Chapman model of the electrical double layer has been employed in addition to the LPBE theory to develop a contact angle model that is a second-degree polynomial in pH. Our model contains the point of zero charge pH of solid surface. To render the model applicable to heterogeneous surfaces, we have further developed a model for the effective value of the point of zero charge pH. The point of zero charge pH model when integrated into our model enabled us to determine the point of zero charge pH of sandstone, quartz and mica using literature based experimental data. In this regard, a literature based thermodynamic model was used to calculate carbon dioxide solubility and pH of aqueous solution. Values of point of zero charge pH determined in this paper agree with reported ones. The novelty of our work stems from the fact that we have used the LPB theory in the context of interfacial science completely different from the classical approach, where the focus is on interparticle electrostatics involving colloidal stabilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mumuni Amadu
- School of Science and Technology, Cape Breton University, Sydney, NS, Canada.
| | - Adango Miadonye
- School of Science and Technology, Cape Breton University, Sydney, NS, Canada
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5
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Shinde S, Mansour M, Mavliutova L, Incel A, Wierzbicka C, Abdel-Shafy HI, Sellergren B. Oxoanion Imprinting Combining Cationic and Urea Binding Groups: A Potent Glyphosate Adsorber. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:587-598. [PMID: 35036726 PMCID: PMC8757333 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c05079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The use of polymerizable hosts in anion imprinting has led to powerful receptors with high oxyanion affinity and specificity in both aqueous and non-aqueous environments. As demonstrated in previous reports, a carefully tuned combination of orthogonally interacting binding groups, for example, positively charged and neutral hydrogen bonding monomers, allows receptors to be constructed for use in either organic or aqueous environments, in spite of the polymer being prepared in non-competitive solvent systems. We here report on a detailed experimental design of phenylphosphonic and benzoic acid-imprinted polymer libraries prepared using either urea- or thiourea-based host monomers in the presence or absence of cationic comonomers for charge-assisted anion recognition. A comparison of hydrophobic and hydrophilic crosslinking monomers allowed optimum conditions to be identified for oxyanion binding in non-aqueous, fully aqueous, or high-salt media. This showed that recognition improved with the water content for thiourea-based molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) based on hydrophobic EGDMA with an opposite behavior shown by the polymers prepared using the more hydrophilic crosslinker PETA. While the affinity of thiourea-based MIPs increased with the water content, the opposite was observed for the oxourea counterparts. Binding to the latter could however be enhanced by raising the pH or by the introduction of cationic amine- or Na+-complexing crown ether-based comonomers. Use of high-salt media as expected suppressed the amine-based charge assistance, whereas it enhanced the effect of the crown ether function. Use of the optimized receptors for removing the ubiquitous pesticide glyphosate from urine finally demonstrated their practical utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhirkumar Shinde
- Biofilms
Research Center for Biointerfaces, Department of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö
University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden
- School
of Consciousness, Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT
World Peace University, Kothrud, 411038 Pune, India
| | - Mona Mansour
- Biofilms
Research Center for Biointerfaces, Department of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö
University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Liliia Mavliutova
- Biofilms
Research Center for Biointerfaces, Department of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö
University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Anil Incel
- Biofilms
Research Center for Biointerfaces, Department of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö
University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Celina Wierzbicka
- Biofilms
Research Center for Biointerfaces, Department of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö
University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Hussein I. Abdel-Shafy
- Water
Research & Pollution Control Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, 11727 Cairo, Egypt
| | - Börje Sellergren
- Biofilms
Research Center for Biointerfaces, Department of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö
University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden
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6
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Ringe S, Hörmann NG, Oberhofer H, Reuter K. Implicit Solvation Methods for Catalysis at Electrified Interfaces. Chem Rev 2021; 122:10777-10820. [PMID: 34928131 PMCID: PMC9227731 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Implicit solvation
is an effective, highly coarse-grained approach
in atomic-scale simulations to account for a surrounding liquid electrolyte
on the level of a continuous polarizable medium. Originating in molecular
chemistry with finite solutes, implicit solvation techniques are now
increasingly used in the context of first-principles modeling of electrochemistry
and electrocatalysis at extended (often metallic) electrodes. The
prevalent ansatz to model the latter electrodes and the reactive surface
chemistry at them through slabs in periodic boundary condition supercells
brings its specific challenges. Foremost this concerns the difficulty
of describing the entire double layer forming at the electrified solid–liquid
interface (SLI) within supercell sizes tractable by commonly employed
density functional theory (DFT). We review liquid solvation methodology
from this specific application angle, highlighting in particular its
use in the widespread ab initio thermodynamics approach
to surface catalysis. Notably, implicit solvation can be employed
to mimic a polarization of the electrode’s electronic density
under the applied potential and the concomitant capacitive charging
of the entire double layer beyond the limitations of the employed
DFT supercell. Most critical for continuing advances of this effective
methodology for the SLI context is the lack of pertinent (experimental
or high-level theoretical) reference data needed for parametrization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Ringe
- Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Daegu Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST), Daegu 42988, Republic of Korea.,Energy Science & Engineering Research Center, Daegu Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST), Daegu 42988, Republic of Korea
| | - Nicolas G Hörmann
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany.,Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, D-85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Harald Oberhofer
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, D-85747 Garching, Germany.,Chair for Theoretical Physics VII and Bavarian Center for Battery Technology (BayBatt), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Karsten Reuter
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
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7
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Deng W, Jia X, Chen Y, Wang Z, Chen F, Chen W, Ao T. The mechanism and regulation of the electrosorption selectivity of inorganic anions during capacitive deionization. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1nj02232f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Explore and verify the influence of hydration energy and valence on selectivity of anions, and the role of anion's shape
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Affiliation(s)
- WenYang Deng
- Institute for Disaster Management and Reconstruction, Sichuan University-The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, China
| | - XueRu Jia
- College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - Yi Chen
- College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Institute for Disaster Management and Reconstruction, Sichuan University-The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, China
| | - FangFang Chen
- College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
- College of Resources and Environment, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610103, China
| | - WenQing Chen
- College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
- State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - TianQi Ao
- State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
- College of Water Resource and Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
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8
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Dziadkowiec J, Ro̷yne A. Nanoscale Forces between Basal Mica Surfaces in Dicarboxylic Acid Solutions: Implications for Clay Aggregation in the Presence of Soluble Organic Acids. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:14978-14990. [PMID: 33259209 PMCID: PMC7745536 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c02290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The stability of organomineral aggregates in soils has a key influence on nutrient cycling, erosion, and soil productivity. Both clay minerals with distinct basal and edge surfaces and organic molecules with reactive functional groups offer rich bonding environments. While clay edges often promote strong inner-sphere bonding of -COOH-laden organics, we explore typically weaker, outer-sphere bonding of such molecules onto basal planes and its significance in organomineral interactions. In this surface force apparatus study, we probed face-specific interactions of negatively charged mica basal surfaces in solutions containing carboxyl-bearing, low-molecular-weight dicarboxylic acids (DAs). Our experiments provide distance-resolved, nanometer-range measurements of forces acting between two (001) mica surfaces and simultaneously probe DA adsorption. We show that background inorganic ions display crucial importance in nanoscale forces acting between basal mica surfaces and in DA adsorption: Na+ contributes to strong repulsion and little binding of dicarboxylic anions, while small amounts of Ca2+ are sufficient to screen the basal surface charge of mica, facilitate strong adhesion, and enhance dicarboxylic anion adsorption by acting as cationic bridges. Despite reversible and weak adsorption of DAs, we resolve their multilayer binding via assembly of hydrophobic chains in the presence of Ca2+, pointing the importance of abundant, less reactive basal clay surfaces in organomineral interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Dziadkowiec
- NJORD
Centre, Department of Physics, University
of Oslo, Oslo 0371, Norway
- Institute
of Applied Physics, Vienna University of
Technology, Wiedner Hauptstrasse
8-10, 1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Anja Ro̷yne
- NJORD
Centre, Department of Physics, University
of Oslo, Oslo 0371, Norway
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9
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Jackson C, Smith G, Russell AE, Levecque P, Kramer D. Electronic metal-support interactions in vacuum vs. electrolyte. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1470. [PMID: 32193392 PMCID: PMC7081312 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15307-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Colleen Jackson
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Graham Smith
- HySA/Catalysis, Catalysis Institute, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cape Town, Corner of Madiba Circle and South Lane, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Andrea E Russell
- School of Chemistry, University of Southampton, University Road, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Pieter Levecque
- HySA/Catalysis, Catalysis Institute, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cape Town, Corner of Madiba Circle and South Lane, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Denis Kramer
- Engineering Sciences, University of Southampton, University Road, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK. .,Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Helmut Schmidt University, 22043, Hamburg, Germany.
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10
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Tapangpan P, Panyarat K, Chankaew C, Grudpan K, Rujiwatra A. Terbium metal organic framework: Microwave synthesis and selective sensing of nitrite. INORG CHEM COMMUN 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.inoche.2019.107627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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11
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Smith AM, Borkovec M, Trefalt G. Forces between solid surfaces in aqueous electrolyte solutions. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 275:102078. [PMID: 31837508 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2019.102078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This review addresses experimental findings obtained with direct force measurements between two similar or dissimilar solid surfaces in aqueous electrolyte solutions. Interpretation of these measurements is mainly put forward in terms of the classical theory of Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek (DLVO). This theory invokes a superposition of attractive van der Waals forces and repulsive double layer forces. DLVO theory is shown to be extremely reliable, even in the case of multivalent ions. However, such a description is only successful, when appropriate surface charge densities, charge regulation characteristics, and ion pairing or complexation equilibria in solution are considered. Deviations from DLVO theory only manifest themselves at distances of typically below few nm. More long-ranged non-DLVO forces can be observed in some situations, particularly, in concentrated electrolyte solutions, in the presence of strongly adsorbed layers, or for hydrophobic surfaces. The latter forces probably originate from patch-charge surface heterogeneities, which can be induced by ion-ion correlation effects, charge fluctuations, or other types of surface heterogeneities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Smith
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Geneva, Sciences II, 30 Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Michal Borkovec
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Geneva, Sciences II, 30 Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Gregor Trefalt
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Geneva, Sciences II, 30 Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland.
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