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Bell JA, Davies ER, Brereton CJ, Vukmirovic M, Roberts JJW, Lunn K, Wickens L, Conforti F, Ridley RA, Ceccato J, Sayer LN, Johnston DA, Vallejo AF, Alzetani A, Jogai S, Marshall BG, Fabre A, Richeldi L, Monk PD, Skipp P, Kaminski N, Offer E, Wang Y, Davies DE, Jones MG. Spatial transcriptomic validation of a biomimetic model of fibrosis enables re-evaluation of a therapeutic antibody targeting LOXL2. Cell Rep Med 2024; 5:101695. [PMID: 39173635 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2024.101695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Matrix stiffening by lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2)-mediated collagen cross-linking is proposed as a core feedforward mechanism that promotes fibrogenesis. Failure in clinical trials of simtuzumab (the humanized version of AB0023, a monoclonal antibody against human LOXL2) suggested that targeting LOXL2 may not have disease relevance; however, target engagement was not directly evaluated. We compare the spatial transcriptome of active human lung fibrogenesis sites with different human cell culture models to identify a disease-relevant model. Within the selected model, we then evaluate AB0023, identifying that it does not inhibit collagen cross-linking or reduce tissue stiffness, nor does it inhibit LOXL2 catalytic activity. In contrast, it does potently inhibit angiogenesis consistent with an alternative, non-enzymatic mechanism of action. Thus, AB0023 is anti-angiogenic but does not inhibit LOXL2 catalytic activity, collagen cross-linking, or tissue stiffening. These findings have implications for the interpretation of the lack of efficacy of simtuzumab in clinical trials of fibrotic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph A Bell
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Elizabeth R Davies
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; Biological Sciences, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK
| | - Christopher J Brereton
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Milica Vukmirovic
- Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | | | - Leanne Wickens
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK
| | - Franco Conforti
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Robert A Ridley
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Jessica Ceccato
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; Department of Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Lucy N Sayer
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - David A Johnston
- Biomedical Imaging Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Andres F Vallejo
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Aiman Alzetani
- NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Sanjay Jogai
- University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Ben G Marshall
- NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Aurelie Fabre
- Department of Histopathology, St. Vincent's University Hospital & UCD School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Luca Richeldi
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; Unità Operativa Complessa di Pneumologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Fondazione Policlinico A. Gemelli, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Paul Skipp
- NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; Biological Sciences, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK; University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK
| | - Naftali Kaminski
- Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Emily Offer
- Medicines Discovery Catapult, Alderley Edge, UK
| | - Yihua Wang
- NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; Biological Sciences, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK; Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK
| | - Donna E Davies
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK
| | - Mark G Jones
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, SO16 6YD Southampton, UK; Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK.
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2
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Burchard PR, Ruffolo LI, Ullman NA, Dale BS, Dave YA, Hilty BK, Ye J, Georger M, Jewell R, Miller C, De Las Casas L, Jarolimek W, Perryman L, Byrne MM, Loria A, Marin C, Chávez Villa M, Yeh JJ, Belt BA, Linehan DC, Hernandez-Alejandro R. Pan-lysyl oxidase inhibition disrupts fibroinflammatory tumor stroma, rendering cholangiocarcinoma susceptible to chemotherapy. Hepatol Commun 2024; 8:e0502. [PMID: 39101793 PMCID: PMC11299993 DOI: 10.1097/hc9.0000000000000502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) features highly desmoplastic stroma that promotes structural and functional resistance to therapy. Lysyl oxidases (LOX, LOXL1-4) catalyze collagen cross-linking, thereby increasing stromal rigidity and facilitating therapeutic resistance. Here, we evaluate the role of lysyl oxidases in stromal desmoplasia and the effects of pan-lysyl oxidase (pan-LOX) inhibition in CCA. METHODS Resected CCA and normal liver specimens were analyzed from archival tissues. Spontaneous and orthotopic murine models of intrahepatic CCA (iCCA) were used to assess the impact of the pan-LOX inhibitor PXS-5505 in treatment and correlative studies. The functional role of pan-LOX inhibition was interrogated through in vivo and ex vivo assays. RESULTS All 5 lysyl oxidases are upregulated in CCA and reduced lysyl oxidase expression is correlated with an improved prognosis in resected patients with CCA. Spontaneous and orthotopic murine models of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma upregulate all 5 lysyl oxidase isoforms. Pan-LOX inhibition reversed mechanical compression of tumor vasculature, resulting in improved chemotherapeutic penetrance and cytotoxic efficacy. The combination of chemotherapy with pan-LOX inhibition increased damage-associated molecular pattern release, which was associated with improved antitumor T-cell responses. Pan-LOX inhibition downregulated macrophage invasive signatures in vitro, rendering tumor-associated macrophages more susceptible to chemotherapy. Mice bearing orthotopic and spontaneously occurring intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma tumors exhibited delayed tumor growth and improved survival following a combination of pan-LOX inhibition with chemotherapy. CONCLUSIONS CCA upregulates all 5 lysyl oxidase isoforms, and pan-LOX inhibition reverses tumor-induced mechanical forces associated with chemotherapy resistance to improve chemotherapeutic efficacy and reprogram antitumor immune responses. Thus, combination therapy with pan-LOX inhibition represents an innovative therapeutic strategy in CCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R. Burchard
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Luis I. Ruffolo
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Nicholas A. Ullman
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Benjamin S. Dale
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Yatee A. Dave
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Bailey K. Hilty
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Jian Ye
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Mary Georger
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Rachel Jewell
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Christine Miller
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Luis De Las Casas
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | | | - Lara Perryman
- Drug Discovery, Syntara Ltd., Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Matthew M. Byrne
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Anthony Loria
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Chelsea Marin
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Mariana Chávez Villa
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Jen Jen Yeh
- Departments of Surgery and Pharmacology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina System, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Brian A. Belt
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - David C. Linehan
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Roberto Hernandez-Alejandro
- Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
- Division of Solid Organ Transplant Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
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Lloyd SM, He Y. Exploring Extracellular Matrix Crosslinking as a Therapeutic Approach to Fibrosis. Cells 2024; 13:438. [PMID: 38474402 DOI: 10.3390/cells13050438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) provides structural support for tissues and regulatory signals for resident cells. ECM requires a careful balance between protein accumulation and degradation for homeostasis. Disruption of this balance can lead to pathological processes such as fibrosis in organs across the body. Post-translational crosslinking modifications to ECM proteins such as collagens alter ECM structure and function. Dysregulation of crosslinking enzymes as well as changes in crosslinking composition are prevalent in fibrosis. Because of the crucial roles these ECM crosslinking pathways play in disease, the enzymes that govern crosslinking events are being explored as therapeutic targets for fibrosis. Here, we review in depth the molecular mechanisms underlying ECM crosslinking, how ECM crosslinking contributes to fibrosis, and the therapeutic strategies being explored to target ECM crosslinking in fibrosis to restore normal tissue structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Lloyd
- AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Rd., North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Yupeng He
- AbbVie Inc., 1 North Waukegan Rd., North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
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4
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Ostrowska-Lesko M, Rajtak A, Moreno-Bueno G, Bobinski M. Scientific and clinical relevance of non-cellular tumor microenvironment components in ovarian cancer chemotherapy resistance. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2024; 1879:189036. [PMID: 38042260 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2023.189036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) components play a crucial role in cancer cells' resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. This phenomenon is exceptionally fundamental in patients with ovarian cancer (OvCa), whose outcome depends mainly on their response to chemotherapy. Until now, most reports have focused on the role of cellular components of the TME, while less attention has been paid to the stroma and other non-cellular elements of the TME, which may play an essential role in the therapy resistance. Inhibiting these components could help define new therapeutic targets and potentially restore chemosensitivity. The aim of the present article is both to summarize the knowledge about non-cellular components of the TME in the development of OvCa chemoresistance and to suggest targeting of non-cellular elements of the TME as a valuable strategy to overcome chemoresistance and to develop new therapeutic strategies in OvCA patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Ostrowska-Lesko
- Chair and Department of Toxicology, Medical University of Lublin, 8b Jaczewskiego Street, 20-090 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Alicja Rajtak
- 1st Chair and Department of Oncological Gynecology and Gynecology, Medical University of Lublin, Poland
| | - Gema Moreno-Bueno
- Biochemistry Department, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Sols-Morreale' (IIBm-CISC), Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Fundación MD Anderson Internacional (FMDA), Spain.
| | - Marcin Bobinski
- 1st Chair and Department of Oncological Gynecology and Gynecology, Medical University of Lublin, Poland.
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5
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Ezzo M, Hinz B. Novel approaches to target fibroblast mechanotransduction in fibroproliferative diseases. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 250:108528. [PMID: 37708995 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
The ability of cells to sense and respond to changes in mechanical environment is vital in conditions of organ injury when the architecture of normal tissues is disturbed or lost. Among the various cellular players that respond to injury, fibroblasts take center stage in re-establishing tissue integrity by secreting and organizing extracellular matrix into stabilizing scar tissue. Activation, activity, survival, and death of scar-forming fibroblasts are tightly controlled by mechanical environment and proper mechanotransduction ensures that fibroblast activities cease after completion of the tissue repair process. Conversely, dysregulated mechanotransduction often results in fibroblast over-activation or persistence beyond the state of normal repair. The resulting pathological accumulation of extracellular matrix is called fibrosis, a condition that has been associated with over 40% of all deaths in the industrialized countries. Consequently, elements in fibroblast mechanotransduction are scrutinized for their suitability as anti-fibrotic therapeutic targets. We review the current knowledge on mechanically relevant factors in the fibroblast extracellular environment, cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesion structures, stretch-activated membrane channels, stress-regulated cytoskeletal structures, and co-transcription factors. We critically discuss the targetability of these elements in therapeutic approaches and their progress in pre-clinical and/or clinical trials to treat organ fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Ezzo
- Keenan Research Institute for Biomedical Science of the St. Michael's Hospital, and Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Boris Hinz
- Keenan Research Institute for Biomedical Science of the St. Michael's Hospital, and Faculty of Dentistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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6
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Cano A, Eraso P, Mazón MJ, Portillo F. LOXL2 in Cancer: A Two-Decade Perspective. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14405. [PMID: 37762708 PMCID: PMC10532419 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241814405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl Oxidase Like 2 (LOXL2) belongs to the lysyl oxidase (LOX) family, which comprises five lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ)-dependent copper amine oxidases in humans. In 2003, LOXL2 was first identified as a promoter of tumour progression and, over the course of two decades, numerous studies have firmly established its involvement in multiple cancers. Extensive research with large cohorts of human tumour samples has demonstrated that dysregulated LOXL2 expression is strongly associated with poor prognosis in patients. Moreover, investigations have revealed the association of LOXL2 with various targets affecting diverse aspects of tumour progression. Additionally, the discovery of a complex network of signalling factors acting at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational levels has provided insights into the mechanisms underlying the aberrant expression of LOXL2 in tumours. Furthermore, the development of genetically modified mouse models with silenced or overexpressed LOXL2 has enabled in-depth exploration of its in vivo role in various cancer models. Given the significant role of LOXL2 in numerous cancers, extensive efforts are underway to identify specific inhibitors that could potentially improve patient prognosis. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of two decades of research on the role of LOXL2 in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amparo Cano
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, Área de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Eraso
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María J. Mazón
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Portillo
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, Área de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Löser R, Kuchar M, Wodtke R, Neuber C, Belter B, Kopka K, Santhanam L, Pietzsch J. Lysyl Oxidases as Targets for Cancer Therapy and Diagnostic Imaging. ChemMedChem 2023; 18:e202300331. [PMID: 37565736 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202300331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
The understanding of the contribution of the tumour microenvironment to cancer progression and metastasis, in particular the interplay between tumour cells, fibroblasts and the extracellular matrix has grown tremendously over the last years. Lysyl oxidases are increasingly recognised as key players in this context, in addition to their function as drivers of fibrotic diseases. These insights have considerably stimulated drug discovery efforts towards lysyl oxidases as targets over the last decade. This review article summarises the biochemical and structural properties of theses enzymes. Their involvement in tumour progression and metastasis is highlighted from a biochemical point of view, taking into consideration both the extracellular and intracellular action of lysyl oxidases. More recently reported inhibitor compounds are discussed with an emphasis on their discovery, structure-activity relationships and the results of their biological characterisation. Molecular probes developed for imaging of lysyl oxidase activity are reviewed from the perspective of their detection principles, performance and biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reik Löser
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, School of Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Mommsenstraße 4, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Manuela Kuchar
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - Robert Wodtke
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - Christin Neuber
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - Birgit Belter
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - Klaus Kopka
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, School of Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Mommsenstraße 4, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Lakshmi Santhanam
- Departments of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine and Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Jens Pietzsch
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, School of Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Mommsenstraße 4, 01069, Dresden, Germany
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8
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Radić J, Kožik B, Nikolić I, Kolarov-Bjelobrk I, Vasiljević T, Vranjković B, Despotović S. Multiple Roles of LOXL2 in the Progression of Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Its Potential for Therapeutic Targeting. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11745. [PMID: 37511503 PMCID: PMC10380739 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
LOXL2, a copper-dependent amine oxidase, has emerged as a promising therapeutic target in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Increased LOXL2 expression in HCC has been linked with an aggressive phenotype and represents a poor prognostic factor. Here, we focus on the mechanisms through which LOXL2 orchestrates multiple oncogenic functions in HCC development. We performed a review of the current knowledge on the roles LOXL2 performs in the modulation of the HCC tumor microenvironment, formation of premetastatic niches, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. We also highlighted the complex interplay between LOXL2 and hypoxia, angiogenesis, and vasculogenic mimicry in HCC. At the end of the review, we summarize the current LOXL2 inhibitors and discuss their potential in HCC precision treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Radić
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, 21137 Novi Sad, Serbia
- Department of Medical Oncology, Oncology Institute of Vojvodina, 21204 Sremska Kamenica, Serbia
| | - Bojana Kožik
- Laboratory for Radiobiology and Molecular Genetics, Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences-National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, 11100 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivan Nikolić
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, 21137 Novi Sad, Serbia
- Department of Medical Oncology, Oncology Institute of Vojvodina, 21204 Sremska Kamenica, Serbia
| | - Ivana Kolarov-Bjelobrk
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, 21137 Novi Sad, Serbia
- Department of Medical Oncology, Oncology Institute of Vojvodina, 21204 Sremska Kamenica, Serbia
| | - Tijana Vasiljević
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, 21137 Novi Sad, Serbia
- Department of Pathology, Oncology Institute of Vojvodina, 21204 Sremska Kamenica, Serbia
| | - Bojana Vranjković
- Department of Medical Oncology, Oncology Institute of Vojvodina, 21204 Sremska Kamenica, Serbia
| | - Sanja Despotović
- Institute of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
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9
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Cheng F, Yang F, Wang Y, Zhou J, Qian H, Yan Y. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomal miR-27b-3p alleviates liver fibrosis via downregulating YAP/LOXL2 pathway. J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:195. [PMID: 37328872 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-01942-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) is an extracellular copper-dependent enzyme that plays a central role in fibrosis by catalyzing the crosslinking and deposition of collagen. Therapeutic LOXL2 inhibition has been shown to suppress liver fibrosis progression and promote its reversal. This study investigates the efficacy and underlying mechanisms of human umbilical cord-derived exosomes (MSC-ex) in LOXL2 inhibition of liver fibrosis. MSC-ex, nonselective LOX inhibitor β-aminopropionitrile (BAPN), or PBS were administered into carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced fibrotic livers. Serum LOXL2 and collagen crosslinking were assessed histologically and biochemically. MSC-ex's mechanisms on LOXL2 regulation were investigated in human hepatic stellate cell line LX-2. We found that systemic administration of MSC-ex significantly reduced LOXL2 expression and collagen crosslinking, delaying the progression of CCl4-induced liver fibrosis. Mechanically, RNA-sequencing and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) indicated that miR-27b-3p was enriched in MSC-ex and exosomal miR-27b-3p repressed Yes-associated protein (YAP) expression by targeting its 3' untranslated region in LX-2. LOXL2 was identified as a novel downstream target gene of YAP, and YAP bound to the LOXL2 promoter to positively regulate transcription. Additionally, the miR-27b-3p inhibitor abrogated the anti-LOXL2 abilities of MSC-ex and diminished the antifibrotic efficacy. miR-27b-3p overexpression promoted MSC-ex mediated YAP/LOXL2 inhibition. Thus, MSC-ex may suppress LOXL2 expression through exosomal miR-27b-3p mediated YAP down-regulation. The findings here may improve our understanding of MSC-ex in liver fibrosis alleviation and provide new opportunities for clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Cheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Wujin Hospital Affiliated with Jiangsu University, Jiangsu University, Changzhou, 213017, China
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu Province, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212001, China
| | - Fuji Yang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Wujin Hospital Affiliated with Jiangsu University, Jiangsu University, Changzhou, 213017, China
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu Province, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212001, China
| | - Yanjin Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Wujin Hospital Affiliated with Jiangsu University, Jiangsu University, Changzhou, 213017, China
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu Province, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212001, China
| | - Jing Zhou
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Precision Cancer Medicine, Wujin Hospital Affiliated with Jiangsu University, Changzhou, 213017, China
- Wujin Institute of Molecular Diagnostics and Precision Cancer Medicine of Jiangsu University (Wujin Clinical College of Xuzhou Medical University), Changzhou, 213017, China
| | - Hui Qian
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu Province, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212001, China
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Precision Cancer Medicine, Wujin Hospital Affiliated with Jiangsu University, Changzhou, 213017, China
| | - Yongmin Yan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Wujin Hospital Affiliated with Jiangsu University, Jiangsu University, Changzhou, 213017, China.
- Changzhou Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Precision Cancer Medicine, Wujin Hospital Affiliated with Jiangsu University, Changzhou, 213017, China.
- Wujin Institute of Molecular Diagnostics and Precision Cancer Medicine of Jiangsu University (Wujin Clinical College of Xuzhou Medical University), Changzhou, 213017, China.
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10
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Xu Q, Streuer A, Jann JC, Altrock E, Schmitt N, Flach J, Sens-Albert C, Rapp F, Wolf J, Nowak V, Weimer N, Obländer J, Palme I, Kuzina M, Jawhar A, Darwich A, Weis CA, Marx A, Wuchter P, Costina V, Jäger E, Sperk E, Neumaier M, Fabarius A, Metzgeroth G, Nolte F, Steiner L, Levkin PA, Jawhar M, Hofmann WK, Riabov V, Nowak D. Inhibition of lysyl oxidases synergizes with 5-azacytidine to restore erythropoiesis in myelodysplastic and myeloid malignancies. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1497. [PMID: 36932114 PMCID: PMC10023686 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37175-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Limited response rates and frequent relapses during standard of care with hypomethylating agents in myelodysplastic neoplasms (MN) require urgent improvement of this treatment indication. Here, by combining 5-azacytidine (5-AZA) with the pan-lysyl oxidase inhibitor PXS-5505, we demonstrate superior restoration of erythroid differentiation in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) of MN patients in 20/31 cases (65%) versus 9/31 cases (29%) treated with 5-AZA alone. This effect requires direct contact of HSPCs with bone marrow stroma components and is dependent on integrin signaling. We further confirm these results in vivo using a bone marrow niche-dependent MN xenograft model in female NSG mice, in which we additionally demonstrate an enforced reduction of dominant clones as well as significant attenuation of disease expansion and normalization of spleen sizes. Overall, these results lay out a strong pre-clinical rationale for efficacy of combination treatment of 5-AZA with PXS-5505 especially for anemic MN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyu Xu
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Alexander Streuer
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Johann-Christoph Jann
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Eva Altrock
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Nanni Schmitt
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Johanna Flach
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Carla Sens-Albert
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Felicitas Rapp
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Julia Wolf
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Verena Nowak
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Nadine Weimer
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Julia Obländer
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Iris Palme
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Mariia Kuzina
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems - Functional Molecular Systems, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
| | - Ahmed Jawhar
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Ali Darwich
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Cleo-Aron Weis
- Institute of Pathology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Alexander Marx
- Institute of Pathology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Patrick Wuchter
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, German Red Cross Blood Service Baden-Württemberg-Hessen, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Victor Costina
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Evelyn Jäger
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Elena Sperk
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Michael Neumaier
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Alice Fabarius
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Georgia Metzgeroth
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Florian Nolte
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Laurenz Steiner
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Pavel A Levkin
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems - Functional Molecular Systems, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, 76131, Germany
| | - Mohamad Jawhar
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Wolf-Karsten Hofmann
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany
| | - Vladimir Riabov
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany.
| | - Daniel Nowak
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, 68167, Germany.
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11
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Meier AA, Kuczera K, Mure M. A 3D-Predicted Structure of the Amine Oxidase Domain of Lysyl Oxidase-Like 2. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:13385. [PMID: 36362176 PMCID: PMC9659206 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) has been recognized as an attractive drug target for anti-fibrotic and anti-tumor therapies. However, the structure-based drug design of LOXL2 has been very challenging due to the lack of structural information of the catalytically-competent LOXL2. In this study; we generated a 3D-predicted structure of the C-terminal amine oxidase domain of LOXL2 containing the lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ) cofactor from the 2.4Å crystal structure of the Zn2+-bound precursor (lacking LTQ; PDB:5ZE3); this was achieved by molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulation based on our solution studies of a mature LOXL2 that is inhibited by 2-hydrazinopyridine. The overall structures of the 3D-modeled mature LOXL2 and the Zn2+-bound precursor are very similar (RMSD = 1.070Å), and disulfide bonds are conserved. The major difference of the mature and the precursor LOXL2 is the secondary structure of the pentapeptide (His652-Lys653-Ala654-Ser655-Phe656) containing Lys653 (the precursor residue of the LTQ cofactor). We anticipate that this peptide is flexible in solution to accommodate the conformation that enables the LTQ cofactor formation as opposed to the β-sheet observed in 5ZE3. We discuss the active site environment surrounding LTQ and Cu2+ of the 3D-predicted structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex A. Meier
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Krzysztof Kuczera
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Minae Mure
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
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12
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Lysyl Oxidase Family Proteins: Prospective Therapeutic Targets in Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012270. [PMID: 36293126 PMCID: PMC9602794 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The lysyl oxidase (LOX) family, consisting of LOX and LOX-like proteins 1–4 (LOXL1–4), is responsible for the covalent crosslinking of collagen and elastin, thus maintaining the stability of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and functioning in maintaining connective tissue function, embryonic development, and wound healing. Recent studies have found the aberrant expression or activity of the LOX family occurs in various types of cancer. It has been proved that the LOX family mainly performs tumor microenvironment (TME) remodeling function and is extensively involved in tumor invasion and metastasis, immunomodulation, proliferation, apoptosis, etc. With relevant translational research in progress, the LOX family is expected to be an effective target for tumor therapy. Here, we review the research progress of the LOX family in tumor progression and therapy to provide novel insights for future exploration of relevant tumor mechanism and new therapeutic targets.
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13
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Liburkin-Dan T, Toledano S, Neufeld G. Lysyl Oxidase Family Enzymes and Their Role in Tumor Progression. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:6249. [PMID: 35682926 PMCID: PMC9181702 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The five genes of the lysyl oxidase family encode enzymes that covalently cross-link components of the extracellular matrix, such as various types of collagen and elastin, and, thus, promote the stabilization of extracellular matrixes. Several of these genes, in particular lysyl oxidase (LOX) and lysyl oxidase like-2 (LOXL2) were identified as genes that are upregulated by hypoxia, and promote tumor cells invasion and metastasis. Here, we focus on the description of the diverse molecular mechanisms by which the various lysyl oxidases affect tumor progression. We also describe attempts that have been made, and are still on-going, that focus on the development of efficient lysyl oxidase inhibitors for the treatment of various forms of cancer, and of diseases associated with abnormal fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gera Neufeld
- Cancer Research and Vascular Biology Center, The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 31096, Israel; (T.L.-D.); (S.T.)
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14
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Pan-Lysyl Oxidase Inhibitor PXS-5505 Ameliorates Multiple-Organ Fibrosis by Inhibiting Collagen Crosslinks in Rodent Models of Systemic Sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23105533. [PMID: 35628342 PMCID: PMC9146019 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23105533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is characterised by progressive multiple organ fibrosis leading to morbidity and mortality. Lysyl oxidases play a vital role in the cross-linking of collagens and subsequent build-up of fibrosis in the extracellular matrix. As such, their inhibition provides a novel treatment paradigm for SSc. A novel small molecule pan-lysyl oxidase inhibitor, PXS-5505, currently in clinical development for myelofibrosis treatment was evaluated using in vivo rodent models resembling the fibrotic conditions in SSc. Both lysyl oxidase and lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) expression were elevated in the skin and lung of SSc patients. The oral application of PXS-5505 inhibited lysyl oxidase activity in the skin and LOXL2 activity in the lung. PXS-5505 exhibited anti-fibrotic effects in the SSc skin mouse model, reducing dermal thickness and α-smooth muscle actin. Similarly, in the bleomycin-induced mouse lung model, PXS-5505 reduced pulmonary fibrosis toward normal levels, mediated by its ability to normalise collagen/elastin crosslink formation. PXS-5505 also reduced fibrotic extent in models of the ischaemia-reperfusion heart, the unilateral ureteral obstruction kidney, and the CCl4-induced fibrotic liver. PXS-5505 consistently demonstrates potent anti-fibrotic efficacy in multiple models of organ fibrosis relevant to the pathogenesis of SSc, suggesting that it may be efficacious as a novel approach for treating SSc.
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15
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Perryman L, Gray SG. Fibrosis in Mesothelioma: Potential Role of Lysyl Oxidases. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:981. [PMID: 35205728 PMCID: PMC8870010 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14040981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapies (such as checkpoint inhibitors) and standard chemotherapies (such as cisplatin) have limitations in the successful treatment of malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM). Fibrosis is the accumulation of collagen in the extracellular matrix (ECM) of tissues, making them denser than that of healthy tissues and thereby affecting drug delivery and immune cell infiltration. Moreover, fibrosis severely affects the patient's breathing and quality of life. The production of collagen and its assembly is highly regulated by various enzymes such as lysyl oxidases. Many solid tumors aberrantly express the family of lysyl oxidases (LOX/LOXL). This review examines how LOX/LOXLs were found to be dysregulated in noncancerous and cancerous settings, discusses their roles in solid tumor fibrosis and pathogenesis and explores the role of fibrosis in the development and poor clinical outcomes of patients with MPM. We examine the current preclinical status of drugs targeting LOX/LOXLs and how the incorporation of such drugs may have therapeutic benefits in the treatment and management of patients with MPM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Perryman
- Drug Discovery Department, Pharmaxis Ltd., Sydney, NSW 2086, Australia;
| | - Steven G. Gray
- Thoracic Oncology, Labmed Directorate, St James’s Hospital, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
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