Development of active controlled retrieval during middle childhood

Electrophysiological Evidence of Enhanced Auditory Retrieval in Musically Trained Children

Abstract. Musical practice enhances auditory processing in children as related to pitch perception or tonal discrimination. The purpose of this study was to examine whether these benefits also occur in auditory working memory by influencing its neural substrates. Two groups of children aged between 7 and 11 years old were compared using an auditory retrieval task with three conditions: frequency retrieval, duration retrieval, and control. Musician children had weekly private violin or cello lessons for at least 14 months, whereas non-musician children had no musical training. Results showed that musicians’ scores on the Gordon’s Primary Measure of Music Audiation test were significantly higher than non-musicians’ scores in the rhythm and tone conditions. On memory tasks, musicians outperformed non-musicians in frequency retrieval but not in duration retrieval. Differences in retrieval performance were associated with a larger P200-like waveform over frontal sites in musicians and a larger N400-like waveform over centro-parietal sites in non-musicians. A source current density analysis revealed differences in frontal activities between musicians and non-musicians, suggesting that musical training influenced the neural mechanisms supporting auditory retrieval in children. These results are in agreement with previous studies that showed a better auditory memory in musicians. Furthermore, they suggest that in children, the effect of musical training can be strong enough to positively influence higher-order auditory memory processes such as active retrieval, as well as their neural correlates.

How Do Children Deal With Conflict? A Developmental Study of Sequential Conflict Modulation

This study examined age-related differences in sequential conflict modulation (SCM), elicited in three tasks requiring the inhibition of pre-potent responses; a Simon task, an S-R compatibility (SRC) task and a hybrid Choice-reaction/NoGo task. The primary focus was on age-related changes in performance changes following a conflict trial. A secondary aim was to assess whether SCM follows different developmental trajectories depending on the type of conflict elicited by the tasks. The tasks were presented to three different groups of participants with an age range between 7- to 25-years-one group of participants for each task. For each task, the response-to-stimulus interval (RSI) was manipulated (50 vs. 500 ms) across trial blocks to assess time-dependent changes in conflict modulation. The results showed SCM for all three tasks, although the specific patterns differed between tasks and RSIs. Importantly, the magnitude of SCM decreased with advancing age, but this developmental trend did not survive when considering age-group differences in basic response speed. The current results contribute to the emerging evidence suggesting that patterns of SCM are task specific and were interpreted in terms of multiple bottom-up control mechanisms.

Neural correlates of active controlled retrieval development: An exploratory ERP study

Working memory is composed of different processes and encompasses not only the temporary storage of information but also its manipulation in order to perform complex cognitive activities. During childhood, one of these manipulation processes, namely active controlled retrieval, improves significantly between the age of 6 to 10, suggesting that the neuronal network supporting this function undergoes substantial maturational changes. The present study examined the neural activity of 14 healthy children and 14 adults while performing an active controlled retrieval task. Results showed differences in brain activity according to active controlled retrieval in a 300-500 ms window corresponding to the retrieval period. Active controlled retrieval was associated with a P3b-like potential in parietal sites for both children and adults. In fronto-central sites, children demonstrated a "N400 like" potential associated with active retrieval processing. These results are discussed in terms of maturational development.

Medical decision-making in children and adolescents: developmental and neuroscientific aspects

Background

Various international laws and guidelines stress the importance of respecting the developing autonomy of children and involving minors in decision-making regarding treatment and research participation. However, no universal agreement exists as to at what age minors should be deemed decision-making competent. Minors of the same age may show different levels of maturity. In addition, patients deemed rational conversation-partners as a child can suddenly become noncompliant as an adolescent. Age, context and development all play a role in decision-making competence. In this article we adopt a perspective on competence that specifically focuses on the impact of brain development on the child’s decision-making process.

Main body

We believe that the discussion on decision-making competence of minors can greatly benefit from a multidisciplinary approach. We adopted such an approach in order to contribute to the understanding on how to deal with children in decision-making situations. Evidence emerging from neuroscience research concerning the developing brain structures in minors is combined with insights from various other fields, such as psychology, decision-making science and ethics. Four capacities have been described that are required for (medical) decision-making: (1) communicating a choice; (2) understanding; (3) reasoning; and (4) appreciation. Each capacity is related to a number of specific skills and abilities that need to be sufficiently developed to support the capacity. Based on this approach it can be concluded that at the age of 12 children can have the capacity to be decision-making competent. However, this age coincides with the onset of adolescence. Early development of the brain’s reward system combined with late development of the control system diminishes decision-making competence in adolescents in specific contexts. We conclude that even adolescents possessing capacities required for decision-making, may need support of facilitating environmental factors.

Conclusion

This paper intends to offer insight in neuroscientific mechanisms underlying the medical decision-making capacities in minors and to stimulate practices for optimal involvement of minors. Developing minors become increasingly capable of decision-making, but the neurobiological development in adolescence affects competence in specific contexts. Adequate support should be offered in order to create a context in which minors can make competently make decisions.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12887-017-0869-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A diffusion model analysis of developmental changes in children's task switching

This study aimed to investigate the underlying processes of the development of cognitive flexibility between childhood and young adulthood. We performed a diffusion model analysis on the reaction time and accuracy data from four age groups (7-, 11-, 15-, and 21-year-olds), who performed a task-switching task. We decomposed the data into processes related to the reconfiguration of the cognitive system to a new goal (i.e., task-set reconfiguration) and processes related to the interference of the previous task (i.e., task-set inertia). The developmental patterns of both processes indicated a relatively early maturing mechanism, associated with task-set inertia, and a later maturing mechanism, relating to task-set reconfiguration. This pattern of results was interpreted in terms of the development of the neural mechanisms involved in task switching, that is, the (pre-)supplementary motor area and the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex.

Development of active control within working memory

This study aimed to compare children’s performance on two mnemonic functions that engage the lateral prefrontal cortex. Brain imaging studies in adults have shown that the mid-ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is specifically involved in active controlled retrieval, and the mid-dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is specifically involved in monitoring mnemonic information (Petrides, 2005). Eighty-two children aged from 6 years, 8 months to 8 years, 7 months were tested. They showed equivalent success rates in active retrieval and monitoring with color and shape information. However, children were slower in monitoring than in active retrieval in color trials. The results demonstrate that the specialized contributions of the lateral prefrontal cortex emerge conjointly during childhood giving children multiple tools to exert an active control within memory.