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de Campos EG, de Almeida OGG, De Martinis ECP. The role of microorganisms in the biotransformation of psychoactive substances and its forensic relevance: a critical interdisciplinary review. Forensic Sci Res 2023; 8:173-184. [PMID: 38221972 PMCID: PMC10785599 DOI: 10.1093/fsr/owad025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms are widespread on the planet being able to adapt, persist, and grow in diverse environments, either rich in nutrient sources or under harsh conditions. The comprehension of the interaction between microorganisms and drugs is relevant for forensic toxicology and forensic chemistry, elucidating potential pathways of microbial metabolism and their implications. Considering the described scenario, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive and critical review of the state of the art of interactions amongst microorganisms and common drugs of abuse. Additionally, other drugs of forensic interest are briefly discussed. This paper outlines the importance of this area of investigation, covering the intersections between forensic microbiology, forensic chemistry, and forensic toxicology applied to drugs of abuse, and it also highlights research potentialities. Key points Microorganisms are widespread on the planet and grow in a myriad of environments.Microorganisms can often be found in matrices of forensic interest.Drugs can be metabolized or produced (e.g. ethanol) by microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo G de Campos
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Chemistry and Fermentation Sciences, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA
| | - Otávio G G de Almeida
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Elaine C P De Martinis
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Castle JW, Butzbach DM, Reith F, Walker GS, Lenehan CE, Costello SP, Kirkbride KP. Investigations into the stability of 17 psychoactive drugs in a "simulated postmortem blood" model. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1200-1222. [PMID: 35170234 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In the postmortem environment some drugs and metabolites may degrade due to microbial activity, even forming degradation products that are not produced in humans. Consequently, under- or over-estimation of perimortem drug concentrations or even false negatives are possible when analyzing postmortem specimens. Therefore, understanding whether medications may be susceptible to microbial degradation is critical in order to ensure that reliable detection and quantitation of drugs and their degradation products is achieved in toxicology screening methods. In this study, a "simulated postmortem blood" model constructed of antemortem human whole blood inoculated with a broad population of human fecal microorganisms was used to investigate the stability of 17 antidepressant and antipsychotic drugs. Microbial communities present in the experiments were determined to be relevant to postmortem blood microorganisms by 16S rRNA sequencing analyses. After 7 days of exposure to the community at 37 °C, drug stability was evaluated using liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection (LC-DAD) and with quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). Most of the investigated drugs were found to be stable in inoculated samples and non-inoculated controls. However, the 1,2-benzisothiazole antipsychotics, ziprasidone and lurasidone, were found to degrade at a rate comparable to the known labile control, risperidone. In longer experiments (seven to twelve months), where specimens were stored at -20 °C, 4 °C, and ambient temperature, N-dealkylation degradation products were detected for many of the drugs, with greater formation in specimens stored at -20 °C than at 4 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared W Castle
- College of Science & Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia.,CSIRO Land & Water, Environmental Contaminant Mitigation and Technologies, Glen Osmond, South Australia, Australia
| | - Danielle M Butzbach
- College of Science & Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia.,Forensic Science SA, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Frank Reith
- CSIRO Land & Water, Environmental Contaminant Mitigation and Technologies, Glen Osmond, South Australia, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - G Stewart Walker
- College of Science & Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Claire E Lenehan
- College of Science & Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Samuel P Costello
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, South Australia, Australia
| | - K Paul Kirkbride
- College of Science & Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
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Trujillo Uruena M, York R, Philp M, Kuzhiumparambil U, Wei Z, Yun K, Fu S. Identification of Unique 4-Methylmethcathinone (4-MMC) Degradation Markers in Putrefied Matrices†. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:803-810. [PMID: 33313885 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug degradation as a consequence of putrefactive bacterial activity is a well-known factor that affects the identification and quantitation of certain substances of forensic interest. Current knowledge on putrefaction-mediated degradation of drugs is, however, significantly lacking. This study aimed to investigate the degradation of 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC or mephedrone) and to detect its degradation products in putrefied biological matrices containing 4-MMC. The bacteria species Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus vulgaris were grown in brain-heart infusion broth, spiked with 4-MMC and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. Postmortem human blood and fresh porcine liver macerate were also left to putrefy in sample tubes at room temperature for 1 week. Structural elucidation was based on modern spectroscopic analyses including the use of high-resolution mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. All four putrefactive bacteria were capable of degrading 4-MMC extensively under the experimental conditions explored. Of particular interest was the discovery of a novel degradation product common to all four bacterial species, which was assigned as 2-hydroxy-1-(4-methylphenyl)propan-1-one (HMP) based on the spectroscopic data. This degradation product was detectable in both postmortem human blood and porcine liver samples. The stability of the identified degradation products, especially HMP, should be further investigated to assess their validity of serving as marker analytes for monitoring 4-MMC in postmortem toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Trujillo Uruena
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Rebekah York
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Morgan Philp
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | | | - Zhiwen Wei
- School of Forensic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, 98 University Street, Yuci District, Jinzhong City 030606, Shanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Keming Yun
- School of Forensic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, 98 University Street, Yuci District, Jinzhong City 030606, Shanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanlin Fu
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, New South Wales 2007, Australia.,School of Forensic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, 98 University Street, Yuci District, Jinzhong City 030606, Shanxi, People's Republic of China
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Castillo-Peinado LS, Luque de Castro MD. Present and foreseeable future of metabolomics in forensic analysis. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 925:1-15. [PMID: 27188312 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The revulsive publications during the last years on the precariousness of forensic sciences worldwide have promoted the move of major steps towards improvement of this science. One of the steps (viz. a higher involvement of metabolomics in the new era of forensic analysis) deserves to be discussed under different angles. Thus, the characteristics of metabolomics that make it a useful tool in forensic analysis, the aspects in which this omics is so far implicit, but not mentioned in forensic analyses, and how typical forensic parameters such as the post-mortem interval or fingerprints take benefits from metabolomics are critically discussed in this review. The way in which the metabolomics-forensic binomial succeeds when either conventional or less frequent samples are used is highlighted here. Finally, the pillars that should support future developments involving metabolomics and forensic analysis, and the research required for a fruitful in-depth involvement of metabolomics in forensic analysis are critically discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- L S Castillo-Peinado
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Annex Marie Curie Building, Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain; University of Córdoba, Agrifood Excellence Campus, ceiA3, Spain; Maimónides Institute of Biomedical Research (IMIBIC), Reina Sofía University Hospital, University of Córdoba, E-14071, Córdoba, Spain
| | - M D Luque de Castro
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Annex Marie Curie Building, Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain; University of Córdoba, Agrifood Excellence Campus, ceiA3, Spain; Maimónides Institute of Biomedical Research (IMIBIC), Reina Sofía University Hospital, University of Córdoba, E-14071, Córdoba, Spain.
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