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Salomone A, Vincenti M. Detecting novel psychoactive substances around the world. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2024; 37:258-263. [PMID: 38818825 DOI: 10.1097/yco.0000000000000939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The worldwide spread of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) in the illicit drug market and their continuous increase in number and type, for the purpose of bypassing controlled substance legislation, represents a continuing challenge for forensic scientists, clinicians and enforcement authorities. We aim to provide information regarding the most urgent harms related to NPS consumption in different world regions and the current state of the art for NPS analysis. RECENT FINDINGS Unfortunately, the identification of NPS in biological samples is controversial, especially when samples are limited, or the drug is promptly and extensively metabolized. This causes a lack of information on their real diffusion in different parts of the world and in different populations. New technologies and instrumental detection of NPS in alternative samples are offering comprehensive information about NPS use. SUMMARY The lack of detection and underreporting of NPS in biological samples makes it difficult to obtain complete qualitative and quantitative information about NPS prevalence. The most innovative strategies that have been proposed in the last 2 years to assist NPS analysis and possibly facilitate the understanding of the NPS diffusion around the world are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Salomone
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turin
- Centro Regionale Antidoping, Orbassano, Turin, Italy
| | - Marco Vincenti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turin
- Centro Regionale Antidoping, Orbassano, Turin, Italy
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Zschiesche A, Scheu M, Thieme D, Keiler AM, Pulver B, Huppertz LM, Auwärter V. Insights into the metabolism of CH-PIATA-A novel synthetic cannabinoid featuring an acetamide linker. J Anal Toxicol 2024; 48:359-371. [PMID: 38441323 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkae013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The recent change from the popular carboxamide to an acetamide (ATA) linker scaffold in synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) can be interpreted as an attempt to circumvent legal regulations, setting new analytical challenges. Metabolites of N-cyclohexyl-2-(1-pentyl-1 H-indol-3-yl)acetamide: CH-PIATA, the second ATA type SCRA detected in the EU, were investigated in urine and serum samples by LC-HRMS-MS and LC-MS-MS. Two different in vitro models, a pHLM assay and HepG2-cells, as well as an in silico prediction by GLORYx freeware assisted in metabolite formation/identification. CH-PIATA was extensively metabolized, leading to metabolites formed primarily by mono- and dihydroxylation. For urine and serum specimens, monohydroxylation at the indole core or the methylene spacer of the acetamide linker (M1.8), carboxylic acid formation at the N-pentyl side chain (M3.1) and degradation of the latter leading to a tentatively identified N-propionic acid metabolite (M5.1) are suggested as reliable markers for substance intake. The N-propionic acid metabolite could not be confirmed in the in vitro assays as it includes multiple consecutive metabolic reactions. Furthermore, CH-PIATA could be detected as parent substance in blood samples, but not in urine. Both in vitro assays and the in silico tool proved suitable for predicting metabolites of CH-PIATA. Considering effort and costs, pHLM incubations seem to be more effective for metabolite prediction in forensic toxicology than HepG2 cells. The highlighted Phase I metabolites serve as reliable urinary targets for confirming CH-PIATA use. The in silico approach is advantageous when reference material is unavailable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Zschiesche
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, Freiburg 79104, Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Hebelstr. 27, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Martin Scheu
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, Freiburg 79104, Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Hebelstr. 27, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Detlef Thieme
- Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry Dresden, Dresdner Str. 12, Kreischa 01731, Germany
| | - Annekathrin M Keiler
- Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry Dresden, Dresdner Str. 12, Kreischa 01731, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, Environmental Monitoring and Endocrinology, TU Dresden University of Technology, Zellescher Weg 2b, Dresden 01217, Germany
| | - Benedikt Pulver
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Laura M Huppertz
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, Freiburg 79104, Germany
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Liu X, Tang Y, Xu L, Liu W, Xiang P, Hang T, Yan H. Metabolism of ADB-FUBIATA in zebrafish and pooled human liver microsomes investigated by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2024; 38:e9730. [PMID: 38456249 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE ADB-FUBIATA is one of the most recently identified new psychoactive substance (NPS) of synthetic cannabinoids. The co-use of in vitro (human liver microsomes) and in vivo (zebrafish) models offers abundant metabolites and may give a deep insight into the metabolism of NPS. METHODS In vivo and in vitro metabolic studies of new synthetic cannabinoid ADB-FUBIATA were carried out using zebrafish and pooled human liver microsome models. Metabilites were structurally characterized by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. RESULTS In total, 18 metabolites were discovered and identified in the pooled human liver microsomes and zebrafish, including seventeen phase I metabolites and one phase II metabolite. The main metabolic pathways of ADB-FUBIATA were hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, N-dealkylation, amide hydrolysis, glucuronidation, and combination thereof. CONCLUSION Hydroxylated metabolites can be recommended as metabolic markers for ADB-FUBIATA because of the structural characteristics and high intensity. These metabolism characteristics of ADB-FUBIATA were useful for its further forensic or clinical related investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinze Liu
- College of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiling Tang
- College of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Linhao Xu
- College of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Taijun Hang
- College of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hui Yan
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
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Brunetti P, Berardinelli D, Giorgetti A, Schwelm HM, Haschimi B, Pelotti S, Busardò FP, Auwärter V. Human metabolism and basic pharmacokinetic evaluation of AP-238: A recently emerged acylpiperazine opioid. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:221-235. [PMID: 37376716 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
As a consequence of recently implemented legal restrictions on fentanyl analogs, a new generation of acylpiperazine opioids appeared on the illicit drug market. AP-238 was the latest opioid in this series to be notified by the European Early Warning System in 2020 and was involved in an increasing number of acute intoxications. AP-238 metabolism was investigated to provide useful markers of consumption. For the tentative identification of the main phase I metabolites, a pooled human liver microsome assay was performed. Further, four whole blood and two urine samples collected during post-mortem examinations and samples from a controlled oral self-administration study were screened for anticipated metabolites. In total, 12 AP-238 phase I metabolites were identified through liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry in the in vitro assay. All of these were confirmed in vivo, and additionally, 15 phase I and five phase II metabolites were detected in the human urine samples, adding up to a total of 32 metabolites. Most of these metabolites were also detected in the blood samples, although mostly with lower abundances. The main in vivo metabolites were built by hydroxylation combined with further metabolic reactions such as O-methylation or N-deacylation. The controlled oral self-administration allowed us to confirm the usefulness of these metabolites as proof of intake in abstinence control. The detection of metabolites is often crucial to documenting consumption, especially when small traces of the parent drug can be found in real samples. The in vitro assay proved to be suitable for the prediction of valid biomarkers of novel synthetic opioid intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Brunetti
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Diletta Berardinelli
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Arianna Giorgetti
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Hannes Max Schwelm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Belal Haschimi
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Susi Pelotti
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
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Baginski SR, Rautio T, Nisbet LA, Lindbom K, Wu X, Dahlén J, McKenzie C, Gréen H. The metabolic profile of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist ADB-HEXINACA using human hepatocytes, LC-QTOF-MS and synthesized reference standards. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:826-834. [PMID: 37747838 PMCID: PMC10714907 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) remain a major public health concern, with their use implicated in intoxications and drug-related deaths worldwide. Increasing our systematic understanding of SCRA metabolism supports clinical and forensic toxicology casework, facilitating the timely identification of analytical targets for toxicological screening procedures and confirmatory analysis. This is particularly important as new SCRAs continue to emerge on the illicit drug market. In this work, the metabolism of ADB-HEXINACA (ADB-HINACA, N-[1-amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]-1-hexyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide), which has increased in prevalence in the United Kingdom and other jurisdictions, was investigated using in vitro techniques. The (S)-enantiomer of ADB-HEXINACA was incubated with pooled human hepatocytes over 3 hours to identify unique and abundant metabolites using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. In total, 16 metabolites were identified, resulting from mono-hydroxylation, di-hydroxylation, ketone formation (mono-hydroxylation then dehydrogenation), carboxylic acid formation, terminal amide hydrolysis, dihydrodiol formation, glucuronidation and combinations thereof. The majority of metabolism took place on the hexyl tail, forming ketone and mono-hydroxylated products. The major metabolite was the 5-oxo-hexyl product (M9), while the most significant mono-hydroxylation product was the 4-hydroxy-hexyl product (M8), both of which were confirmed by comparison to in-house synthesized reference standards. The 5-hydroxy-hexyl (M6) and 6-hydroxy-hexyl (M7) metabolites were not chromatographically resolved, and the 5-hydroxy-hexyl product was the second largest mono-hydroxylated metabolite. The structures of the terminal amide hydrolysis products without (M16, third largest metabolite) and with the 5-positioned ketone (M13) were also confirmed by comparison to synthesized reference standards, along with the 4-oxo-hexyl metabolite (M11). The 5-oxo-hexyl and 4-hydroxy-hexyl metabolites are suggested as biomarkers for ADB-HEXINACA consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R Baginski
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Fleming Laboratory, Small’s Wynd, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Tobias Rautio
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping 581 83, Sweden
| | - Lorna A Nisbet
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Fleming Laboratory, Small’s Wynd, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Karin Lindbom
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping 581 83, Sweden
| | - Xiongyu Wu
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping 581 83, Sweden
| | - Johan Dahlén
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping 581 83, Sweden
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Fleming Laboratory, Small’s Wynd, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
- Chiron AS, Stiklestadveien 1, Trondheim 7041, Norway
| | - Henrik Gréen
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping 581 83, Sweden
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Artillerigatan 12, Linköping 587 58, Sweden
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