Zac1 promotes a Müller glial cell fate and interferes with retinal ganglion cell differentiation inXenopus retina

Plag1 and Plagl2 have overlapping and distinct functions in telencephalic development

The Plag gene family has three members; Plagl1/Zac1, which is a tumor suppressor gene, and Plag1 and Plagl2, which are proto-oncogenes. All three genes are known to be expressed in embryonic neural progenitors, and Zac1 regulates proliferation, neuronal differentiation and migration in the developing neocortex. Here we examined the functions of Plag1 and Plagl2 in neocortical development. We first attempted, and were unable to generate, E12.5 Plag1;Plagl2 double mutants, indicating that at least one Plag1 or Plagl2 gene copy is required for embryonic survival. We therefore focused on single mutants, revealing a telencephalic patterning defect in E12.5 Plagl2 mutants and a proliferation/differentiation defect in Plag1 mutant neocortices. Specifically, the ventral pallium, a dorsal telencephalic territory, expands into the ventral telencephalon in Plagl2 mutants. In contrast, Plag1 mutants develop normal regional territories, but neocortical progenitors proliferate less and instead produce more neurons. Finally, in gain-of-function studies, both Plag1 and Plagl2 reduce neurogenesis and increase BrdU-uptake, indicative of enhanced proliferation, but while Plagl2 effects on proliferation are more immediate, Plag1 effects are delayed. Taken together, we found that the Plag proto-oncogenes genes are essential regulators of neocortical development and although Plag1 and Plagl2 functions are similar, they do not entirely overlap. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Multiple intrinsic factors act in concert with Lhx2 to direct retinal gliogenesis

Müller glia (MG) are the principal glial cell type in the vertebrate retina. Recent work has identified the LIM homeodomain factor encoding gene Lhx2 as necessary for both Notch signaling and MG differentiation in late-stage retinal progenitor cells (RPCs). However, the extent to which Lhx2 interacts with other intrinsic regulators of MG differentiation is unclear. We investigated this question by investigating the effects of overexpression of multiple transcriptional regulators that are either known or hypothesized to control MG formation, in both wildtype and Lhx2-deficient RPCs. We observe that constitutively elevated Notch signaling, induced by N1ICD electroporation, inhibited gliogenesis in wildtype animals, but rescued MG development in Lhx2-deficient retinas. Electroporation of Nfia promoted the formation of cells with MG-like radial morphology, but did not drive expression of MG molecular markers. Plagl1 and Sox9 did not induce gliogenesis in wildtype animals, but nonetheless activated expression of the Müller marker P27^Kip1 in Lhx2-deficient cells. Finally, Sox2, Sox8, and Sox9 promoted amacrine cell formation in Lhx2-deficient cells, but not in wildtype retinas. These findings demonstrate that overexpression of individual gliogenic factors typically regulates only a subset of characteristic MG markers, and that these effects are differentially modulated by Lhx2.

Zac1 Regulates the Differentiation and Migration of Neocortical Neurons via Pac1

Imprinted genes are dosage sensitive, and their dysregulated expression is linked to disorders of growth and proliferation, including fetal and postnatal growth restriction. Common sequelae of growth disorders include neurodevelopmental defects, some of which are indirectly related to placental insufficiency. However, several growth-associated imprinted genes are also expressed in the embryonic CNS, in which their aberrant expression may more directly affect neurodevelopment. To test whether growth-associated genes influence neural lineage progression, we focused on the maternally imprinted gene Zac1. In humans, either loss or gain of ZAC1 expression is associated with reduced growth rates and intellectual disability. To test whether increased Zac1 expression directly perturbs neurodevelopment, we misexpressed Zac1 in murine neocortical progenitors. The effects were striking: Zac1 delayed the transition of apical radial glial cells to basal intermediate neuronal progenitors and postponed their subsequent differentiation into neurons. Zac1 misexpression also blocked neuronal migration, with Zac1-overexpressing neurons pausing more frequently and forming fewer neurite branches during the period when locomoting neurons undergo dynamic morphological transitions. Similar, albeit less striking, neuronal migration and morphological defects were observed on Zac1 knockdown, indicating that Zac1 levels must be regulated precisely. Finally, Zac1 controlled neuronal migration by regulating Pac1 transcription, a receptor for the neuropeptide pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP). Pac1 and Zac1 loss- and gain-of-function presented as phenocopies, and overexpression of Pac1 rescued the Zac1 knockdown neuronal migration phenotype. Thus, dysregulated Zac1 expression has striking consequences on neocortical development, suggesting that misexpression of this transcription factor in the brain in certain growth disorders may contribute to neurocognitive deficits. Significance statement: Altered expression of imprinted genes is linked to cognitive dysfunction and neuropsychological disorders, such as Angelman and Prader-Willi syndromes, and autism spectrum disorder. Mouse models have also revealed the importance of imprinting for brain development, with chimeras generated with parthenogenetic (two maternal chromosomes) or androgenetic (two paternal chromosomes) cells displaying altered brain sizes and cellular defects. Despite these striking phenotypes, only a handful of imprinted genes are known or suspected to regulate brain development (e.g., Dlk1, Peg3, Ube3a, necdin, and Grb10). Herein we show that the maternally imprinted gene Zac1 is a critical regulator of neocortical development. Our studies are relevant because loss of 6q24 maternal imprinting in humans results in elevated ZAC1 expression, which has been associated with neurocognitive defects.

The p53 co-activator Zac1 neither induces cell cycle arrest nor apoptosis in chicken Lim1 horizontal progenitor cells

Chicken horizontal progenitor cells are able to enter their final mitosis even in the presence of DNA damage despite having a functional p53-p21 system. This suggests that they are resistant to DNA damage and that the regulation of the final cell cycle of horizontal progenitor cells is independent of the p53-p21 system. The activity of p53 is regulated by positive and negative modulators, including the zinc finger containing transcription factor Zac1 (zinc finger protein that regulates apoptosis and cell cycle arrest). Zac1 interacts with and enhances the activity of p53, thereby inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. In this work, we use a gain-of-function assay in which mouse Zac1 (mZac1) is overexpressed in chicken retinal progenitor cells to study the effect on the final cell cycle of horizontal progenitor cells. The results showed that overexpression of mZac1 induced expression of p21 in a p53-dependent way and arrested the cell cycle as well as triggered apoptosis in chicken non-horizontal retinal progenitor cells. The negative regulation of the cell cycle by mZac1 is consistent with its proposed role as a tumour-suppressor gene. However, the horizontal cells were not affected by mZac1 overexpression. They progressed into S- and late G2/M-phase despite overexpression of mZac1. The inability of mZac1 to arrest the cell cycle in horizontal progenitor cells support the notion that the horizontal cells are less sensitive to events that triggers the p53 system during their terminal and neurogenic cell cycle, compared with other retinal cells. These properties are associated with a cell that has a propensity to become neoplastic and thus with a cell that may develop retinoblastoma.

Zac1 regulates astroglial differentiation of neural stem cells through Socs3

Cell-fate decisions and differentiation of embryonic and adult neural stem cells (NSC) are tightly controlled by lineage-restricted and temporal factors that interact with cell-intrinsic programs and extracellular signals through multiple regulatory loops. Imprinted genes are important players in neurodevelopment and mental health although their molecular and cellular functions remain poorly understood. Here, we show that the paternally expressed transcriptional regulator Zac1 (zinc finger protein regulating apoptosis and cell cycle arrest) is transiently induced during astroglial and neuronal differentiation of embryonic and adult NSC lines. Thereby, Zac1 transactivates Socs3 (suppressor of cytokine signaling 3), a potent inhibitor of prodifferentiative Jak/Stat3 signaling, in a lineage-specific manner to prevent precocious astroglial differentiation. In vivo, Zac1 and Socs3 colocalize in the neocortical ventricular zone during incipient astrogliogenesis. Zac1 overexpression in primary NSCs delays astroglial differentiation whereas knockdown of Zac1 or Socs3 facilitates formation of astroglial cells. This negative feedback loop is unrelated to Zac1's cell cycle arrest function and specific to the Jak/Stat3 pathway. Hence, reinstating Jak/Stat3 signaling in the presence of increased Zac1 expression allows for timely astroglial differentiation. Overall, we suggest that the imprinted gene Zac1 curtails astroglial differentiation of NSCs in the developing and adult brain.

Zac1 regulates cell cycle arrest in neuronal progenitors via Tcf4

Imprinted genes play a critical role in brain development and mental health, although the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain incompletely understood. The family of basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) proteins directs the proliferation, differentiation, and specification of distinct neuronal progenitor populations. Here, we identified the bHLH factor gene Tcf4 as a direct target gene of Zac1/Plagl1, a maternally imprinted transcriptional regulator, during early neurogenesis. Zac1 and Tcf4 expression levels concomitantly increased during neuronal progenitor differentiation; moreover, Zac1 interacts with two cis-regulatory elements in the Tcf4 gene locus, and these elements together confer synergistic activation of the Tcf4 gene. Tcf4 upregulation enhances the expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor gene p57(Kip2), a paternally imprinted Tcf4 target gene, and increases the number of cells in G1 phase. Overall, we show that Zac1 controls cell cycle arrest function in neuronal progenitors through induction of p57(Kip2) via Tcf4 and provide evidence for cooperation between imprinted genes and a bHLH factor in early neurodevelopment.

Islet-1 immunoreactivity in the developing retina of Xenopus laevis

The LIM-homeodomain transcription factor Islet1 (Isl1) has been widely used as a marker of neuronal differentiation in the developing visual system of different classes of vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. In the present study, we analyzed the spatial and temporal distribution of Isl1-immunoreactive cells during Xenopus laevis retinal development and its relation to the formation of the retinal layers, and in combination with different markers of cell differentiation. The earliest Isl1 expression appeared at St29-30 in the cell nuclei of sparse differentiating neuroblasts located in the vitreal surface of the undifferentiated retina. At St35-36, abundant Isl1-positive cells accumulated at the vitreal surface of the neuroepithelium. As development proceeded and through the postmetamorphic juveniles, Isl1 expression was identified in subpopulations of ganglion cells and in subsets of amacrine, bipolar, and horizontal cells. These data together suggest a possible role for Isl1 in the early differentiation and maintenance of different retinal cell types, and Isl1 can serve as a specific molecular marker for the study of retinal cell specification in X. laevis.

Injury-independent induction of reactive gliosis in retina by loss of function of the LIM homeodomain transcription factor Lhx2

Müller glia are the primary glial subtype in the retina and perform a wide range of physiological tasks in support of retinal function, but little is known about the transcriptional network that maintains these cells in their differentiated state. We report that selective deletion of the LIM homeodomain transcription factor Lhx2 from mature Müller glia leads to the induction of reactive retinal gliosis in the absence of injury. Furthermore, Lhx2 expression is also down-regulated in Prph2(Rd2/Rd2) animals immediately before the onset of reactive gliosis. Analysis of conditional Lhx2 knockouts showed that gliosis was hypertrophic but not proliferative. Aging of experimental animals demonstrated that constitutive reactive gliosis induced by deletion of Lhx2 reduced rates of ongoing apoptosis and compromised both rod and cone photoreceptor function. Additionally, these animals showed a dramatically reduced ability to induce expression of secreted neuroprotective factors and displayed enhanced rates of apoptosis in light-damage assays. We provide in vivo evidence that Lhx2 actively maintains mature Müller glia in a nonreactive state, with loss of function initiating a specific program of nonproliferative hypertrophic gliosis.

Gcm/Glide-dependent conversion into glia depends on neural stem cell age, but not on division, triggering a chromatin signature that is conserved in vertebrate glia

Neurons and glia differentiate from multipotent precursors called neural stem cells (NSCs), upon the activation of specific transcription factors. In vitro, it has been shown that NSCs display very plastic features; however, one of the major challenges is to understand the bases of lineage restriction and NSC plasticity in vivo, at the cellular level. We show here that overexpression of the Gcm transcription factor, which controls the glial versus neuronal fate choice, fully and efficiently converts Drosophila NSCs towards the glial fate via an intermediate state. Gcm acts in a dose-dependent and autonomous manner by concomitantly repressing the endogenous program and inducing the glial program in the NSC. Most NSCs divide several times to build the embryonic nervous system and eventually enter quiescence: strikingly, the gliogenic potential of Gcm decreases with time and quiescent NSCs are resistant to fate conversion. Together with the fact that Gcm is able to convert mutant NSCs that cannot divide, this indicates that plasticity depends on temporal cues rather than on the mitotic potential. Finally, NSC plasticity involves specific chromatin modifications. The endogenous glial cells, as well as those induced by Gcm overexpression display low levels of histone 3 lysine 9 acetylation (H3K9ac) and Drosophila CREB-binding protein (dCBP) Histone Acetyl-Transferase (HAT). Moreover, we show that dCBP targets the H3K9 residue and that high levels of dCBP HAT disrupt gliogenesis. Thus, glial differentiation needs low levels of histone acetylation, a feature shared by vertebrate glia, calling for an epigenetic pathway conserved in evolution.

Zac1 plays a key role in the development of specific neuronal subsets in the mouse cerebellum

BACKGROUND

The cerebellum is composed of a diverse array of neuronal subtypes. Here we have used a candidate approach to identify Zac1, a tumor suppressor gene encoding a zinc finger transcription factor, as a new player in the transcriptional network required for the development of a specific subset of cerebellar nuclei and a population of Golgi cells in the cerebellar cortex.

RESULTS

We found that Zac1 has a complex expression profile in the developing cerebellum, including in two proliferating progenitor populations; the cerebellar ventricular zone and the external granular layer overlying posterior cerebellar lobules IX and X. Zac1 is also expressed in some postmitotic cerebellar neurons, including a subset of GABAergic interneurons in the medial cerebellar nuclei. Notably, GABAergic interneurons in the cerebellar nuclei are derived from the cerebellar ventricular zone, where Zac1 is also expressed, consistent with a lineage relationship between these two Zac1+ populations. Zac1 is also expressed in a small subset of cells in the posterior vermis, including some neurogranin-immunoreactive (NG+) Golgi cells, which, based on short-term birthdating, are derived from the EGL, where Zac1 is also expressed. However, Zac1+ cells and NG+ Golgi cells in the cerebellar cortex also display unique properties, as they are generated within different, albeit overlapping, time windows. Finally, consistent with the expression profile of Zac1, two conspicuous abnormalities were found in the cerebellum of Zac1 null mice: the medial cerebellar nuclei, and not the others, were significantly reduced in size; and the number of Golgi cells in cerebellar lobule IX was reduced by approximately 60% compared to wild-type littermates.

CONCLUSIONS

The data presented here indicate that the tumor suppressor gene Zac1 is expressed in a complex fashion in the developing cerebellum, including in two dividing progenitor populations and in specific subsets of postmitotic neurons, including Golgi cells and GABAergic neurons in the medial nuclei, which require Zac1 for their differentiation. We thus conclude that Zac1 is a critical regulator of normal cerebellar development, adding a new transcriptional regulator to the growing list of factors involved in generating neuronal diversity in the developing cerebellum.

Zac1 plays a key role in the development of specific neuronal subsets in the mouse cerebellum

Background

The cerebellum is composed of a diverse array of neuronal subtypes. Here we have used a candidate approach to identify Zac1, a tumor suppressor gene encoding a zinc finger transcription factor, as a new player in the transcriptional network required for the development of a specific subset of cerebellar nuclei and a population of Golgi cells in the cerebellar cortex.

Results

We found that Zac1 has a complex expression profile in the developing cerebellum, including in two proliferating progenitor populations; the cerebellar ventricular zone and the external granular layer overlying posterior cerebellar lobules IX and X. Zac1 is also expressed in some postmitotic cerebellar neurons, including a subset of GABAergic interneurons in the medial cerebellar nuclei. Notably, GABAergic interneurons in the cerebellar nuclei are derived from the cerebellar ventricular zone, where Zac1 is also expressed, consistent with a lineage relationship between these two Zac1⁺ populations. Zac1 is also expressed in a small subset of cells in the posterior vermis, including some neurogranin-immunoreactive (NG⁺) Golgi cells, which, based on short-term birthdating, are derived from the EGL, where Zac1 is also expressed. However, Zac1⁺ cells and NG⁺ Golgi cells in the cerebellar cortex also display unique properties, as they are generated within different, albeit overlapping, time windows. Finally, consistent with the expression profile of Zac1, two conspicuous abnormalities were found in the cerebellum of Zac1 null mice: the medial cerebellar nuclei, and not the others, were significantly reduced in size; and the number of Golgi cells in cerebellar lobule IX was reduced by approximately 60% compared to wild-type littermates.

Conclusions

The data presented here indicate that the tumor suppressor gene Zac1 is expressed in a complex fashion in the developing cerebellum, including in two dividing progenitor populations and in specific subsets of postmitotic neurons, including Golgi cells and GABAergic neurons in the medial nuclei, which require Zac1 for their differentiation. We thus conclude that Zac1 is a critical regulator of normal cerebellar development, adding a new transcriptional regulator to the growing list of factors involved in generating neuronal diversity in the developing cerebellum.

Zac1 functions through TGFbetaII to negatively regulate cell number in the developing retina

Background

Organs are programmed to acquire a particular size during development, but the regulatory mechanisms that dictate when dividing progenitor cells should permanently exit the cell cycle and stop producing additional daughter cells are poorly understood. In differentiated tissues, tumor suppressor genes maintain a constant cell number and intact tissue architecture by controlling proliferation, apoptosis and cell dispersal. Here we report a similar role for two tumor suppressor genes, the Zac1 zinc finger transcription factor and that encoding the cytokine TGFβII, in the developing retina.

Results

Using loss and gain-of-function approaches, we show that Zac1 is an essential negative regulator of retinal size. Zac1 mutants develop hypercellular retinae due to increased progenitor cell proliferation and reduced apoptosis at late developmental stages. Consequently, supernumerary rod photoreceptors and amacrine cells are generated, the latter of which form an ectopic cellular layer, while other retinal cells are present in their normal number and location. Strikingly, Zac1 functions as a direct negative regulator of a rod fate, while acting cell non-autonomously to modulate amacrine cell number. We implicate TGFβII, another tumor suppressor and cytokine, as a Zac1-dependent amacrine cell negative feedback signal. TGFβII and phospho-Smad2/3, its downstream effector, are expressed at reduced levels in Zac1 mutant retinae, and exogenous TGFβII relieves the mutant amacrine cell phenotype. Moreover, treatment of wild-type retinae with a soluble TGFβ inhibitor and TGFβ receptor II (TGFβRII) conditional mutants generate excess amacrine cells, phenocopying the Zac1 mutant phenotype.

Conclusion

We show here that Zac1 has an essential role in cell number control during retinal development, akin to its role in tumor surveillance in mature tissues. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Zac1 employs a novel cell non-autonomous strategy to regulate amacrine cell number, acting in cooperation with a second tumor suppressor gene, TGFβII, through a negative feedback pathway. This raises the intriguing possibility that tumorigenicity may also be associated with the loss of feedback inhibition in mature tissues.