Psychological Well-being Trajectories of Individuals with Dyslexia Aged 3-11 Years

Understanding mental health in developmental dyslexia through a neurodiversity lens: The mediating effect of school-connectedness on anxiety, depression and conduct problems

Dyslexia, a neurocognitive difference characterised by poor word-reading, is associated with elevated risk for internalising (e.g., anxiety) and externalising (e.g., aggression) mental health concerns, the reasons are largely unknown. We took a neurodiversity perspective and explored whether school-connectedness mediated these associations. A total of 283 primary school children (87 with dyslexia) and their caregivers (95.4% mothers) completed a battery of well-validated connectedness and mental health measures. Two mediation models (one for child-report and one for caregiver-report) tested direct and indirect effects of dyslexia on anxiety, depression and conduct problems via several domains of school-connectedness. After controlling for gender and neurodevelopmental conditions other than dyslexia, there were no direct effects of dyslexia on child- or caregiver-reported internalising symptoms or child-reported conduct problems. Dyslexia was associated with child and caregiver reported anxiety, depression and conduct problems via low levels of school (but not teacher, friend or peer) connectedness. Findings highlight school-connectedness as an important intervention target for the mental health of children with dyslexia. Future research is needed to test associations between dyslexia, school-connectedness and mental health over time.

Caregiver Self-Efficacy in Relation to Caregivers' History of Language and Reading Difficulties and Children's Shared Reading Experiences

PURPOSE

Emerging literature suggests caregiver self-efficacy is an important factor related to caregivers' shared reading practices with their children. Reduced shared reading has been documented among families of caregiver(s) with language-based learning disabilities (LBLD). Yet, it remains unclear whether caregivers' history of language and reading difficulties is associated with caregiver self-efficacy. The purpose of this study was to examine whether self-efficacy in language- and reading-related caregiver activities related to caregiver history of language and reading difficulties and shared reading practices.

METHOD

One hundred seventy-six caregivers of children aged 18-60 months completed a custom self-efficacy in language- and reading-related caregiver activities questionnaire, as well as demographic, history of language and reading difficulties (used both as a continuous measure and to dichotomize caregivers with and without LBLD history), and shared reading measures in a one-time survey.

RESULTS

Caregivers with a history of LBLD reported an overall lower self-efficacy and a reduced amount of time reading with their children per week than caregivers without LBLD history. Examining caregiver history of language and reading difficulties continuously across the whole group, self-efficacy mediated the relationship between caregiver difficulties and shared reading practices, even when caregiver education was incorporated as an additional mediator in models.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicate that self-efficacy and caregiver education mediate the relationship between caregiver history of language and reading difficulties and shared reading practices. Consideration of self-efficacy by clinicians and educators is warranted when promoting shared reading practices to caregivers of young children. There is a need for future research to examine relationships between self-efficacy and shared reading among caregivers with LBLD of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25901590.

Revisiting the definition of dyslexia

The International Dyslexia Association definition of dyslexia was updated 20 years ago and has been referenced frequently in research and practice. In this paper, researchers from the Florida Center for Reading Research consider the components of the definition and make recommendations for revisions. These include recognizing the persistence of word-reading, decoding, and spelling difficulties, acknowledging the multifactorial causal basis of dyslexia, clarifying exclusionary factors, and denoting comorbidity with other developmental disorders. It is also suggested that the academic and psychosocial consequences of dyslexia be highlighted to reinforce a preventive service delivery model. Lastly, the inclusion of dyslexia within a specific learning disability category is supported.

"I struggle at times to see her struggle": Mothers' perspectives on dyslexia-related school struggles and the inter-connected nature of mother and child well-being

INTRODUCTION

Parents of children with dyslexia may be at elevated risk for parenting stress and mental health concerns. Our aim was to explore the emotional experience of growing up with dyslexia in Australia from parents' perspectives. In so doing, we also developed an understanding of parents' own mental health and support needs informed by their lived experience.

METHODOLOGY

Seventeen interviews with mothers of children (9-14 years; 16 with a diagnosis of dyslexia) were analysed using Braun and Clarke's reflexive thematic analysis approach.

ANALYSIS

Five themes were developed to address our aim: Theme 1: Years in the wilderness: Life before diagnosis; 2: "I struggle at times to see her struggle"; 3. School struggles: Advocating for our children and managing distress; 4. "It's a full-time job" and a "long slog"; 5: Care for the carer: Social support and coping strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our analysis suggests that mothers of children with dyslexia may be at elevated risk for mental health concerns. Specifically, chronic worry and stress, secondary distress, challenges to parenting self-efficacy, and lack of support and understanding (feeling isolated) were highlighted as plausible risk factors. Mothers described coping strategies at the community level (e.g., school connectedness) and at the individual level (e.g., "acceptance") as protective.

Growing up with dyslexia: Child and parent perspectives on school struggles, self-esteem, and mental health

Children with dyslexia, compared with typically reading peers, are at increased risk of internalising (e.g., anxiety) and externalising (e.g., aggression) mental health concerns; why this is the case is largely unknown. Our aim was to explore the socio-emotional experience of growing up with dyslexia from both child and parent perspectives. In so doing, we aimed to gain a better understanding of self-esteem and mental health in the context of dyslexia. One-to-one semi-structured interviews with 17 children with reading difficulties (aged 9-14 years; 16 with a diagnosis of dyslexia) and their mothers (interviewed separately) were analysed using Braun and Clarke's reflexive thematic analysis approach with a neurodiversity lens. We developed three themes to address the research aim: (1) Different in a good/bad way; (2) Exhausted and overwhelmed; and (3) It takes a community: Family school connections. Children discussed having "worries" and experiencing school-related stress and embarrassment. Mothers perceived children's internalising and externalising behaviour (meltdowns), school refusal, and homework resistance as emotional responses to children's school struggles due to poor "person-environment fit." Our analysis highlights the particular importance of parent support, friendship, and school-connectedness for the wellbeing of children with dyslexia.

Ethnic inequalities in multiple long-term health conditions in the United Kingdom: a systematic review and narrative synthesis

Indicative evidence suggests that minoritised ethnic groups have higher risk of developing multiple long-term conditions (MLTCs), and do so earlier than the majority white population. While there is evidence on ethnic inequalities in single health conditions and comorbidities, no review has attempted to look across these from a MLTCs perspective. As such, we currently have an incomplete understanding of the extent of ethnic inequalities in the prevalence of MLTCs. Further, concerns have been raised about variations in the way ethnicity is operationalised and how this impedes our understanding of health inequalities. In this systematic review we aimed to 1) describe the literature that provides evidence of ethnicity and prevalence of MLTCs amongst people living in the UK, 2) summarise the prevalence estimates of MLTCs across ethnic groups and 3) to assess the ways in which ethnicity is conceptualised and operationalised. We focus on the state of the evidence prior to, and during the very early stages of the pandemic. We registered the protocol on PROSPERO (CRD42020218061). Between October and December 2020, we searched ASSIA, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Web of Science, OpenGrey, and reference lists of key studies/reviews. The main outcome was prevalence estimates for MLTCs for at least one minoritised ethnic group, compared to the majority white population. We included studies conducted in the UK reporting on ethnicity and prevalence of MLTCs. To summarise the prevalence estimates of MLTCs across ethnic groups we included only studies of MLTCs that provided estimates adjusted at least for age. Two reviewers screened and extracted data from a random sample of studies (10%). Data were synthesised using narrative synthesis. Of the 7949 studies identified, 84 met criteria for inclusion. Of these, seven contributed to the evidence of ethnic inequalities in MLTCs. Five of the seven studies point to higher prevalence of MLTCs in at least one minoritised ethnic group compared to their white counterparts. Because the number/types of health conditions varied between studies and some ethnic populations were aggregated or omitted, the findings may not accurately reflect the true level of ethnic inequality. Future research should consider key explanatory factors, including those at the macrolevel (e.g. racism, discrimination), as they may play a role in the development and severity of MLTCs in different ethnic groups. Research is also needed to ascertain the extent to which the COVID19 pandemic has exacerbated these inequalities.

Understanding Mental Health in Developmental Dyslexia: A Scoping Review

Children with dyslexia are at elevated risk of internalising and externalising mental health concerns. Our aim was to scope the extent and nature of the literature investigating factors which may influence this association. We systematically searched the peer-reviewed and grey literature with no restrictions on the date. We included both qualitative and quantitative studies. Inclusion criteria included: (1) a focus on childhood (≤18 years) reading/learning difficulties; (2) internalising and/or externalising symptoms; and (3) a potentially modifiable third factor (e.g., self-esteem). Ninety-eight studies met the inclusion criteria. We organised the studies according to individual, family, and community-level third factors. Whilst a range of third factors were identified, relatively few researchers tested associations between the third factor and mental health in the context of dyslexia. Furthermore, there was a focus on primary rather than secondary school experience and a reliance, in many cases, on teacher/parent perspectives on children's mental health. Future researchers are encouraged to explore links between socio-emotional skills, coping strategies, school connectedness, and mental health in the context of dyslexia. Research of this nature is important to assist with the identification of children who are more (or less) at risk of mental health concerns and to inform tailored mental health programs for children with dyslexia.

Clustering analysis of factors affecting academic career of university students with dyslexia in Italy

This study was designed to explore learning experiences of university students with dyslexia and factors that could contribute to their success in the university career. Although, great efforts have been made to diagnose dyslexia and to mitigate its effects at primary and secondary school, little has been done at the university level in particular in the Italian context. Indeed in the university context, the availability and possibility to use of support tools, that enable the student to achieve educational success, is still not sufficiently adequate. In this paper we used bivariate association tests and cluster analysis, in order to identify the most suitable compensatory tools and support strategies that can facilitate the students' performance in higher education. The data were obtained through the voluntary participation of Italian students, enrolled in a bachelor degree course, with certified diagnosis of dyslexia. Six groups of students were identified from the cluster analysis, defining specific support tools and learning strategies for each group. Furthermore, through the creation of these six groups, it was possible to describe "profiles" that highlight the risk factors (late diagnosis) and-or protection factors (such as associations, support from friends and family) in analyzing the academic career of students with dyslexia. Therefore, starting from these data, through artificial intelligence it will be possible to identify and suggest study methodologies and create specific support tools for each student that can enable her/him to achieve educational success in her/his academic career.

Kindergarten screening tools filled out by parents and teachers targeting dyslexia. Predictions and developmental trajectories from age 5 to age 15 years

The concept of early 'efforts' has led to discussions for and against introducing language assessment for all kindergarten children. Evidence-based kindergarten screening tools completed by close caregivers could solve this controversy as the children themselves would only be indirectly involved. The aim of this study was to see whether the scores of such early screening tools aiming at developmental dyslexia could predict school marks of literacy competence 10 years later, and to see whether these screening tools would reveal different dyslexia trajectories. The study is part of the Bergen Longitudinal Dyslexia Study, and the results from individual testing are reported elsewhere. Here, the caregivers' views isolated from the rest of the study are focused. Three tools were used: the RI-5, a questionnaire assessing the risk of dyslexia; the TRAS, a non-standardized observation tool of children's communication skills; and the CCC-2, a questionnaire assessing Developmental Language Disorders. Screening was performed at age 5 (TP1), age 11, (TP2) and age 15 (TP3). At TP2, when dyslexia was identified, 13 children formed the dyslexia group, and the rest formed the control group. At TP3, the RI-5 and CCC-2 turned out to be predictive of literacy competence as measured by school marks. Developmental trajectories were seen through the regroupings and scorings into a persistent group, a late onset group and a resolving group. Evidence-based preschool screening tools filled out by close caregivers offer valid information on later literacy developmental trajectories.

Cognitive and non-cognitive factors in educational and occupational outcomes-Specific to reading disability?

Low education and unemployment are common adult-age outcomes associated with childhood RD (c-RD). However, adult-age cognitive and non-cognitive factors associated with different outcomes remain unknown. We studied whether these outcomes are equally common among individuals with c-RD and controls and whether these outcomes are related to adult-age literacy skills or cognitive and non-cognitive factors or their interaction with c-RD. We examined adult participants with c-RD (n = 48) and their matched controls (n = 37). Low education was more common among c-RD than the controls, whereas long-term unemployment was equally common in both groups. Moreover, adult-age literacy skills, cognitive skills and non-cognitive factors were related to both low education and long-term unemployment. Only a few c-RD-specific associations emerged: c-RD, especially in interaction with low verbal or reading comprehension, was associated with low education, and c-RD in interaction with slow adult-age reading was associated with long-term unemployment. Avoidant coping style, emotional wellbeing and social functioning were related to education, and life-satisfaction to unemployment irrespective of c-RD. Thus, the non-cognitive factors associated with education and employment are similar in individuals with and without c-RD. Special attention should be paid to training c-RD individuals in basic academic, social and emotional skills.

Inclusion, Dyslexia, Emotional State and Learning: Perceptions of Ibero-American Children with Dyslexia and Their Parents during the COVID-19 Lockdown

The COVID-19 pandemic has transformed educational processes. This has had major consequences for students and, in particular, for those with special education needs. Dyslexic students suffer from widespread educational and legal invisibility, and information on their situation and that of their families during this health crisis is lacking. This article presents the results of an exploratory study based on two online surveys taken by parents (n = 327) and children with dyslexia (n = 203) through the Spanish Dyslexia Federation (acronym in Spanish “FEDIS”), the Dyslexia and Family Association (acronym in Spanish “DISFAM”), and the Ibero-American Organisation for Specific Learning Difficulties (acronym in Spanish “OIDEA”). Data were collected in May–July 2020. The results offer a comprehensive viewpoint (family and children) on the aspects that have helped and hindered learning, such as teacher and family support, emotional state, use of ICT, and the importance of the voluntary/association network. The study provides evidence of how lockdown and school closures have created additional difficulties for learning but also how certain educational processes have been bolstered with the support of technological resources that should serve as benchmarks for education policy and classroom practice.