Managing salmon for wildlife: Do fisheries limit salmon consumption by bears in small Alaskan streams?

The influence of human disturbance on Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) in the diet of American black bears (Ursus americanus) in two areas of coastal British Columbia, Canada

Recent studies have highlighted the importance of salmon (genus Oncorhynchus Suckley, 1861) in the diet of bears, and of bears as consumers and key agents supporting the transport of salmon-derived nutrients to riparian ecosystems. Salmon abundance and human disturbance are known influences on bear ecology and behaviour, though few studies have quantified shifts in bear diet due to these effects. We used stable isotope analysis to investigate how salmon escapement and human presence influenced the proportion of salmon in the diet of American black bears ( Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780) in two locations in coastal British Columbia, Canada. We found that salmon constituted a small proportion of black bear diet across sexes and ecosystems, while bears appeared to gain a similar amount of energy and lean mass from terrestrial sources. Salmon consumption was not related to the total annual abundance of salmon in a watershed but was significantly lower in large streams with regular human presence, suggesting that human disturbance can cause a dietary shift in bears that could have important consequences to their fitness. We also observed that the isotopic signatures of key bear foods did not vary between foliage and fruit, simplifying data collection for future isotopic studies on bear diet.

Prevalence and patterns of scavenging by brown bears (Ursus arctos) on salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) carcasses

Scavenging, an underappreciated mechanism of prey consumption for many predators, can contribute substantially to nutritional intake. Facultative scavengers such as brown bears (Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758) may both kill and scavenge Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus Suckley, 1861), though the extent of scavenging and factors affecting this behavior are unclear. We tagged 899 sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum in Artedi, 1792)) carcasses and placed them on streambanks over 5 years at multiple sites in southwestern Alaska (USA) where brown bears annually prey on spawning sockeye salmon. Examination of carcasses revealed overall scavenging rates of 15% after 1 day and 54% after 3 days. Scavenging rate varied by site and year and increased throughout the salmon run. Contrary to predictions, scavenging was more frequent in senescent or bear-killed carcasses than ripe carcasses. Carcass consumption ranged from minimal to almost complete; body and brain tissues were most frequently consumed after 3 days (68% and 63% of carcasses, respectively). We also documented secondary scavenging (i.e., tissue consumption on two separate events) and delayed scavenging (i.e., scavenging observed after 3 days but not 1 day). Taken together, the results indicated that scavenging in these streams contributes significantly to total consumption of salmon by bears, with ramifications for other components of these salmon-dependent ecosystems.

Stable Isotopes Reveal Variation in Consumption of Pacific Salmon by Brown Bears, Despite Ready Access in Small Streams

Brown bears Ursus arctos consume a wide range of organisms, including ungulates and plants, but Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp. are especially important to their diet where their ranges overlap. Although some brown bears minimize antagonistic encounters with other brown bears or infanticide by avoiding streams where salmon spawn, studies generally assume that brown bears with ready access to salmon feed heavily on them. To test this assumption, and the hypothesis that male brown bears would feed more heavily on salmon than females (owing to their sexual size dimorphism), we collected hair samples from brown bears by using barbed wire placed on six small tributaries of Lake Aleknagik, Alaska, USA, where adult Sockeye Salmon Oncorhynchus nerka are readily accessible and frequently consumed by brown bears. Analysis of DNA distinguished among the different brown bears leaving the hair samples, some of which were sampled multiple times within and among years. We assessed the contribution of salmon to the diet of individual brown bears by using carbon and nitrogen stable isotope signatures. The 77 samples analyzed from 31 different bears over 4 y showed isotopic ratios consistent with reliance on salmon, but the wide range of isotopic signatures included values suggesting variable, and in one case considerable, use of terrestrial resources. Stable isotope signatures did not differ between male and female brown bears, nor did they differ between two sides of the lake, despite marked differences in Sockeye Salmon density. We collected the hair samples when salmon were present, so there was some uncertainty regarding whether they reflected feeding during the current or previous season. Notwithstanding this caveat, the results are consistent with the hypothesis that salmon were sufficiently available to provide food for the brown bears and that the considerable isotopic variation among brown bears with access to salmon reflected their age, status, and behavior.