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Zhou J, Su Y, Li X, Kuzyakov Y, Wang P, Gong J, Li X, Liu L, Zhang X, Ma C, Ma X, Huang T, Bai Y, Sun F. Arbuscular mycorrhizae mitigate negative impacts of soil biodiversity loss on grassland productivity. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 349:119509. [PMID: 37940487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
Grassland degradation decreases ecosystem productivity and diminishes soil biodiversity, leading to the loss of beneficial microorganisms. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) play a critical role in ecosystem functioning, being a key link between plant and microbial communities, soil, and vegetation. Here, we evaluated the potential of increasing the productivity of degraded grassland by AMF inoculation. A gradient of soil biodiversity: complete sterilization, low, moderate, and high biodiversity was established using the dilution-to-extinction approach. Grassland microcosms under greenhouse conditions were inoculated with three AMF taxa in an increasing diversity: no AMF, single AMF taxa, and all three AMF taxa together. The loss of soil biodiversity decreased plant community productivity, primarily due to reduced biomass of legumes and non-N2-fixing forbs. AMF inoculation raised plant community productivity by 190%, mainly attributed to the greater biomass of legumes and non-N2-fixing forbs. This positive effect of AMF inoculation was particularly pronounced on soils with low biodiversity, where soil mutualists were absent. The biomass of grasses remained independent of AMF inoculation. This differential responsiveness to mycorrhiza was mainly due to the distinctive plant traits of each plant functional group. Inoculating with a single AMF was more beneficial for plant biomass production than inoculation with multiple AMF under lower levels of soil biodiversity, probably due to high functional redundancy among AMF taxa. In conclusion, AMF inoculation reduced the adverse impact of soil degradation and biodiversity loss on plant biomass and vegetation development, highlighting the key roles and importance of AMF for grassland restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiqiong Zhou
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Yingying Su
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiangjun Li
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yakov Kuzyakov
- Department of Soil Science of Temperate Ecosystems, Department of Agricultural Soil Science, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany; Peoples Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 117198, Moscow, Russia
| | - Pengsen Wang
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jinchao Gong
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xuxu Li
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lin Liu
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xinquan Zhang
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Congyu Ma
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiao Ma
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Ting Huang
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yanfu Bai
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Feida Sun
- Department of Grassland Science, College of Grassland Science & Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, No.211 Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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O'Shaughnessy KA, Knights AM, Hawkins SJ, Hanley ME, Lunt P, Thompson RC, Firth LB. Metrics matter: Multiple diversity metrics at different spatial scales are needed to understand species diversity in urban environments. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 895:164958. [PMID: 37331387 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, natural habitats are being replaced by artificial structures due to urbanisation. Planning of such modifications should strive for environmental net gain that benefits biodiversity and ecosystems. Alpha (α) and gamma (γ) diversity are often used to assess 'impact' but are insensitive metrics. We test several diversity measures across two spatial scales to compare species diversity in natural and artificial habitats. We show γ-diversity indicates equivalency in biodiversity between natural and artificial habitats, but natural habitats support greater taxon (α) and functional richness. Within-site β-diversity was also greater in natural habitats, but among-site β-diversity was greater in artificial habitats, contradicting the commonly held view that urban ecosystems are more biologically homogenous than natural ecosystems. This study suggests artificial habitats may in fact provide novel habitat for biodiversity, challenges the applicability of the urban homogenisation concept and highlights a significant limitation of using just α-diversity (i.e., multiple metrics are needed and recommended) for assessing environmental net gain and attaining biodiversity conservation goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn A O'Shaughnessy
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Science, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom; APEM Ltd, Heaton Mersey, Stockport, United Kingdom.
| | - Antony M Knights
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
| | - Stephen J Hawkins
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom; School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; The Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
| | - Mick E Hanley
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
| | - Paul Lunt
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Science, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
| | - Richard C Thompson
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
| | - Louise B Firth
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
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Singh AK, Zhu X, Chen C, Yang B, Pandey VC, Liu W, Singh N. Investigating the recovery in ecosystem functions and multifunctionality after 10 years of natural revegetation on fly ash technosol. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 875:162598. [PMID: 36882140 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Technogenic soil (technosol) developed from coal fly ash (FA) landfilling has been considered a critical environmental problem worldwide. Drought-tolerant plants often naturally grow on FA technosol. However, the impact of these natural revegetations on the recovery of multiple ecosystem functions (multifunctionality) remains largely unexplored and poorly understood. Here we assessed the response of multifunctionality, including nutrient cycling (i.e., carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus), carbon storage, glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP), plant productivity, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial processes (soil enzyme activities), and soil chemical properties (pH and electrical conductivity; EC) to FA technosol ten years' natural revegetation with different multipurpose species in Indo-Gangetic plain, and identified the key factors regulating ecosystem multifunctionality during reclamation. We evaluated four dominant revegetated species: Prosopis juliflora, Saccharum spontaneum, Ipomoea carnea, and Cynodon dactylon. We found that natural revegetation initiated the recovery of ecosystem multifunctionality on technosol, with greater recovery under higher biomass-producing species (P. juliflora and S. spontaneum) than lower biomass-producing ones (I. carnea and C. dactylon). The individual functions (11 of the total 16 variables) at higher functionality (70 % threshold) also exhibited this pattern among revegetated stands. Multivariate analyses revealed that most of the variables (except EC) significantly correlated with multifunctionality, indicating the capability of multifunctionality to consider the tradeoff between individual functions. We further performed structural equation modeling (SEM) to detect the effect of vegetation, pH, nutrients, and microbial activity (MBC and microbial processes) on ecosystem multifunctionality. Our SEM model predicted 98 % of the variation in multifunctionality and confirmed that the indirect effect of vegetation mediated by microbial activity is more important for multifunctionality than their direct effect. Collectively, our results demonstrate that FA technosol revegetation with high biomass-producing multipurpose species promotes ecosystem multifunctionality and emphasizes the significance of microbial activity in the recovery and maintenance of ecosystem attributes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Kumar Singh
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Yunnan 666303, China; Plant Ecology and Environmental Science Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India.
| | - Xiai Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Yunnan 666303, China
| | - Chunfeng Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Yunnan 666303, China
| | - Bin Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Yunnan 666303, China
| | - Vimal Chandra Pandey
- Plant Ecology and Environmental Science Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India; Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226025, India.
| | - Wenjie Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Yunnan 666303, China.
| | - Nandita Singh
- Plant Ecology and Environmental Science Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India
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Wang C, Yang Q, Zhang C, Zhang X, Chen J, Liu K. Vegetation restoration of abandoned cropland improves soil ecosystem multifunctionality through alleviating nitrogen-limitation in the China Danxia. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1116179. [PMID: 36925746 PMCID: PMC10011436 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1116179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The microbial requirement for nutrient resources can be estimated by soil extracellular enzyme stoichiometry (EES) and their stoichiometries. Implementing the Grain for Green Program has significantly impacted land use and soil nutrient management in the China Danxia. However, drivers of soil microbial nutrient limitation changes in abandoned cropland (AC) remained unclear after vegetation restoration. Here, according to vector analysis, we evaluated microbial nutrient limitation by studying soil EES across vegetation restoration types (naturally restored secondary forests (NF) and artificially planted forests (AF)) with AC as a control. Results showed both NF and AF soils averaged higher C- and P- acquiring enzyme, indicating rapid C and P turnover rates after vegetation restoration. However, vegetation restoration resulted in higher C requirement for microorganisms with higher enzyme C:N and vector length. In addition, microorganisms shifted from N- (< 45°) to P-limited (> 45°) conditions with enzyme N:P less than 1 after vegetation restoration, and NF exacerbated microbial P limitation compared to AF. Decreased N limitation following vegetation restoration could be contributed to improving soil ecosystem multifunctionality. The greater variation of EES was explained by the interaction of pH, soil nutrient, and microbial biomass than by any one of these factors alone, suggesting that both abiotic and biotic factors regulate microbial nutrient limitation and microbial process. Overall, our results revealed vegetation restoration could alleviate N limitation in the China Danxia, and thus enhance soil ecosystem by regulating lower microbial N limitation, which provide insight into nutrient management strategies under ecological restoration of degraded areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Wang
- School of Resources and Planning, Guangzhou Xinhua University, Guangzhou, China
- Ecological Restoration Research Center, China Institute of south China Urban-Rural Economic and Social Development, Guangzhou, China
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiannan Yang
- School of Resources and Planning, Guangzhou Xinhua University, Guangzhou, China
- Ecological Restoration Research Center, China Institute of south China Urban-Rural Economic and Social Development, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chi Zhang
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaolong Zhang
- School of Resources and Planning, Guangzhou Xinhua University, Guangzhou, China
- Ecological Restoration Research Center, China Institute of south China Urban-Rural Economic and Social Development, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing Chen
- School of Resources and Planning, Guangzhou Xinhua University, Guangzhou, China
- Ecological Restoration Research Center, China Institute of south China Urban-Rural Economic and Social Development, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kexue Liu
- School of Resources and Planning, Guangzhou Xinhua University, Guangzhou, China
- Ecological Restoration Research Center, China Institute of south China Urban-Rural Economic and Social Development, Guangzhou, China
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Zheng J, Zhang F, Zhang B, Chen D, Li S, Zhao T, Wang Q, Han G, Zhao M. Biodiversity and soil pH regulate the recovery of ecosystem multifunctionality during secondary succession of abandoned croplands in northern China. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 327:116882. [PMID: 36455443 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The 'Grain-for-Green' program in China provides a valuable opportunity to investigate whether spontaneous restoration can reverse the deterioration of grassland ecosystem functions. Previous studies have focused on individual ecosystem functions, but the response of and mechanisms driving variation in ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF) during restoration are poorly understood. Here, we quantified EMF using productivity, nutrient cycling, and water regulation functions along abandoned croplands in a recovery chronosequence (5, 15 and 20 years) and in natural grasslands in the desert steppe and typical steppe. We also analyzed the effects of plant and microbial diversity and an abiotic factor (soil pH) on EMF. Our results showed that EMF increased gradually concomitant with recovery time, shifting toward EMF values comparable to those in natural grasslands in both desert and typical steppe. Similar results were found for the productivity function, the water regulation function, and soil organic carbon. However, even after 20 years of restoration, EMF did not reach the levels observed in natural grasslands. Structural equation modeling showed that the driving mechanisms of EMF differed between the two steppe types. Specifically, in the desert steppe, plant diversity, especially the diversity of perennial graminoids and perennial herbs, had a positive effect on EMF, but in the typical steppe, soil bacterial diversity had a negative effect, while soil pH had a positive effect on EMF. Our results demonstrated that spontaneous grassland restoration effectively enhanced EMF, and emphasized the importance of biodiversity and soil pH in regulating EMF during secondary succession. This work provides important insights for grassland ecosystem management in arid and semi-arid regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahua Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Grassland Resources of the Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Forage Cultivation, Processing and High Efficient Utilization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Management and Utilization, College of Grassland, Resources and Environment, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010011, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Grassland Resources of the Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Forage Cultivation, Processing and High Efficient Utilization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Management and Utilization, College of Grassland, Resources and Environment, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010011, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Grassland Resources of the Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Forage Cultivation, Processing and High Efficient Utilization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Management and Utilization, College of Grassland, Resources and Environment, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010011, China.
| | - Daling Chen
- Key Laboratory of Grassland Resources of the Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Forage Cultivation, Processing and High Efficient Utilization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Management and Utilization, College of Grassland, Resources and Environment, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010011, China
| | - Shaoyu Li
- Key Laboratory of Grassland Resources of the Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Forage Cultivation, Processing and High Efficient Utilization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Management and Utilization, College of Grassland, Resources and Environment, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010011, China
| | - Tianqi Zhao
- Yinshanbeilu Grassland Eco-hydrology National Observation and Research Station, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing, 100038, China; Institute of Water Resources for Pastoral Area Ministry of Water Resources, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, 010120, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Grassland Resources of the Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Forage Cultivation, Processing and High Efficient Utilization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Management and Utilization, College of Grassland, Resources and Environment, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010011, China
| | - Guodong Han
- Key Laboratory of Grassland Resources of the Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Forage Cultivation, Processing and High Efficient Utilization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Management and Utilization, College of Grassland, Resources and Environment, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010011, China
| | - Mengli Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Grassland Resources of the Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Forage Cultivation, Processing and High Efficient Utilization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Management and Utilization, College of Grassland, Resources and Environment, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, 010011, China.
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Resch MC, Schütz M, Ochoa‐Hueso R, Buchmann N, Frey B, Graf U, van der Putten WH, Zimmermann S, Risch AC. Long‐term recovery of above‐and belowground interactions in restored grasslands after topsoil removal and seed addition. J Appl Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.14145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Monika Carol Resch
- Community Ecology Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL 8903 Birmensdorf Switzerland
| | - Martin Schütz
- Community Ecology Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL 8903 Birmensdorf Switzerland
| | - Raúl Ochoa‐Hueso
- Vitivinicultural and Agri‐Food Research Institute University of Cádiz 11510 Puerto Real Spain
| | - Nina Buchmann
- Institute of Agricultural Sciences ETH Zurich, 8092 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Beat Frey
- Forest Soils and Biogeochemistry Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL, 8903 Birmensdorf Switzerland
| | - Ulrich Graf
- Biodiversity and Conservation Biology Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL, 8903 Birmensdorf Switzerland
| | - Wim H. van der Putten
- Netherlands Institute of Ecology 6708 Wageningen The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Nematology Wageningen University 6700 Wageningen The Netherlands
| | - Stephan Zimmermann
- Forest Soils and Biogeochemistry Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL, 8903 Birmensdorf Switzerland
| | - Anita C. Risch
- Community Ecology Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research WSL 8903 Birmensdorf Switzerland
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Yang B, Balazs KR, Butterfield BJ, Laushman KM, Munson SM, Gornish ES, Barberán A. Does restoration of plant diversity trigger concomitant soil microbiome changes in dryland ecosystems? J Appl Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.14074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ben Yang
- Department of Environmental Science University of Arizona Tucson AZ USA
| | - Kathleen R. Balazs
- Department of Biological Sciences Northern Arizona University Flagstaff AZ USA
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society Northern Arizona University Flagstaff AZ USA
| | - Bradley J. Butterfield
- Department of Biological Sciences Northern Arizona University Flagstaff AZ USA
- Center for Ecosystem Science and Society Northern Arizona University Flagstaff AZ USA
| | | | - Seth M. Munson
- U.S. Geological Survey Southwest Biological Science Center Flagstaff AZ USA
| | - Elise S. Gornish
- University of Arizona School of Natural Resources and the Environment Tucson AZ USA
| | - Albert Barberán
- Department of Environmental Science University of Arizona Tucson AZ USA
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Goret T, Janssens X, Godefroid S. A decision-making tool for restoring lowland grasslands in Europe. J Nat Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnc.2021.126046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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