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Sun QW, Chen JZ, Liao XF, Huang XL, Liu JM. Identification of keystone taxa in rhizosphere microbial communities using different methods and their effects on compounds of the host Cinnamomum migao. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 926:171952. [PMID: 38537823 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Exploring keystone taxa affecting microbial community stability and host function is crucial for understanding ecosystem functions. However, identifying keystone taxa from humongous microbial communities remains challenging. We collected 344 rhizosphere and bulk soil samples from the endangered plant C. migao for 2 years consecutively. Used high-throughput sequencing 16S rDNA and ITS to obtain the composition of bacterial and fungal communities. We explored keystone taxa and the applicability and limitations of five methods (SPEC-OCCU, Zi-Pi, Subnetwork, Betweenness, and Module), as well as the impact of microbial community domain, time series, and rhizosphere boundary on the identification of keystone taxa in the communities. Our results showed that the five methods, identified abundant keystone taxa in rhizosphere and bulk soil microbial communities. However, the keystone taxa shared by the rhizosphere and bulk soil microbial communities over time decreased rapidly decrease in the five methods. Among five methods on the identification of keystone taxa in the rhizosphere community, Module identified 113 taxa, SPEC-OCCU identified 17 taxa, Betweenness identified 3 taxa, Subnetwork identified 3 taxa, and Zi-Pi identified 4 taxa. The keystone taxa are mainly conditionally rare taxa, and their ecological functions include chemoheterotrophy, aerobic chemoheterotrophy, nitrate reduction, and anaerobic photoautotrophy. The results of the random forest model and structural equation model predict that keystone taxa Mortierella and Ellin6513 may have an effects on the accumulation of 1, 4, 7, - Cycloundecatriene, 1, 5, 9, 9-tetramethyl-, Z, Z, Z-, beta-copaene, bicyclogermacrene, 1,8-Cineole in C. migao fruits, but their effects still need further evidence. Our study evidence an unstable microbial community in the bulk soil, and the definition of microbial boundary and ecologically functional affected the identification of keystone taxa in the community. Subnetwork and Module are more in line with the definition of keystone taxa in microbial ecosystems in terms of maintaining community stability and hosting function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing-Wen Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guiyang 550025, China; Guizhou Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, 550025, China
| | - Jing-Zhong Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guiyang 550025, China; Guizhou Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, 550025, China.
| | | | | | - Ji-Ming Liu
- College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
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2
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Prado NA, Armstrong EE, Brown JL, Goldenberg SZ, Leimgruber P, Pearson VR, Maldonado JE, Campana MG. Genomic resources for Asian (Elephas maximus) and African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana) conservation and health research. J Hered 2023; 114:529-538. [PMID: 37246890 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esad034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/30/2023] Open
Abstract
We provide novel genomic resources to help understand the genomic traits involved in elephant health and to aid conservation efforts. We sequence 11 elephant genomes (5 African savannah, 6 Asian) from North American zoos, including 9 de novo assemblies. We estimate elephant germline mutation rates and reconstruct demographic histories. Finally, we provide an in-solution capture assay to genotype Asian elephants. This assay is suitable for analyzing degraded museum and noninvasive samples, such as feces and hair. The elephant genomic resources we present here should allow for more detailed and uniform studies in the future to aid elephant conservation efforts and disease research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia A Prado
- Biology Department, College of Arts and Sciences, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, United States
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
- Endocrinology Research Laboratory, Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Ellie E Armstrong
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Janine L Brown
- Endocrinology Research Laboratory, Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Shifra Z Goldenberg
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
- Conservation Science and Wildlife Health, San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Escondido, CA, United States
| | - Peter Leimgruber
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Virginia R Pearson
- Glenn Rall Laboratory, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Jesús E Maldonado
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Michael G Campana
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, United States
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3
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Marasinghe MSLRP, Nilanthi RMR, Hathurusinghe HABM, Sooriyabandara MGC, Chandrasekara CHWMRB, Jayawardana KANC, Kodagoda MM, Rajapakse RC, Bandaranayake PCG. Revisiting traditional SSR based methodologies available for elephant genetic studies. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8718. [PMID: 33888797 PMCID: PMC8062488 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88034-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) plays a significant role in natural ecosystems and it is considered as an endangered animal. Molecular genetics studies on elephants' dates back to 1990s. Microsatellite markers have been the preferred choice and have played a major role in ecological, evolutionary and conservation research on elephants over the past 20 years. However, technical constraints especially related to the specificity of traditionally developed microsatellite markers have brought to question their application, specifically when degraded samples are utilized for analysis. Therefore, we analyzed the specificity of 24 sets of microsatellite markers frequently used for elephant molecular work. Comparative wet lab analysis was done with blood and dung DNA in parallel with in silico work. Our data suggest cross-amplification of unspecific products when field-collected dung samples are utilized in assays. The necessity of Asian elephant specific set of microsatellites and or better molecular techniques are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S L R P Marasinghe
- Department of Wildlife Conservation, 811/A, Jayanthipura Road, Battaramulla, 10120, Sri Lanka
| | - R M R Nilanthi
- Department of Wildlife Conservation, 811/A, Jayanthipura Road, Battaramulla, 10120, Sri Lanka
| | - H A B M Hathurusinghe
- Agricultural Biotechnology Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - M G C Sooriyabandara
- Department of Wildlife Conservation, 811/A, Jayanthipura Road, Battaramulla, 10120, Sri Lanka
| | - C H W M R B Chandrasekara
- Agricultural Biotechnology Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - K A N C Jayawardana
- Department of Wildlife Conservation, 811/A, Jayanthipura Road, Battaramulla, 10120, Sri Lanka
| | - M M Kodagoda
- Agricultural Biotechnology Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - R C Rajapakse
- Department of National Zoological Gardens, Anagarika Dharmapala Mawatha, Dehiwala, 10350, Sri Lanka
| | - P C G Bandaranayake
- Agricultural Biotechnology Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 20400, Sri Lanka.
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4
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Psonis N, de Carvalho CN, Figueiredo S, Tabakaki E, Vassou D, Poulakakis N, Kafetzopoulos D. Molecular identification and geographic origin of a post-Medieval elephant finding from southwestern Portugal using high-throughput sequencing. Sci Rep 2020; 10:19252. [PMID: 33159124 PMCID: PMC7648095 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-75323-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular species identification plays a crucial role in archaeology and palaeontology, especially when diagnostic morphological characters are unavailable. Molecular markers have been used in forensic science to trace the geographic origin of wildlife products, such as ivory. So far, only a few studies have applied genetic methods to both identify the species and circumscribe the provenance of historic wildlife trade material. Here, by combining ancient DNA methods and genome skimming on a historical elephantid tooth found in southwestern Portugal, we aimed to identify its species, infer its placement in the elephantid phylogenetic tree, and triangulate its geographic origin. According to our results the specimen dates back to the eighteenth century CE and belongs to a female African forest elephant (non-hybrid Loxodonta cyclotis individual) geographically originated from west—west-central Africa, from areas where one of the four major mitochondrial clades of L. cyclotis is distributed. Historical evidence supports our inference, pointing out that the tooth should be considered as post-Medieval raw ivory trade material between West Africa and Portugal. Our study provides a comprehensive approach to study historical products and artefacts using archaeogenetics and contributes towards enlightening cultural and biological historical aspects of ivory trade in western Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Psonis
- Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (FORTH), Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Ancient DNA Lab, N. Plastira 100, Vassilika Vouton, 70013, Irakleio, Greece.
| | - Carlos Neto de Carvalho
- Naturtejo UNESCO Global Geopark-Geology Office of the Municipality of Idanha-a-Nova, Centro Cultural Raiano, Av. Joaquim Morão, 6060-101, Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal.,Instituto D. Luiz-IDL Ciências da Terra, Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Silvério Figueiredo
- Polytechnic Institute of Tomar, Quinta do Contador, Estrada da Serra, 2300-313, Tomar, Portugal.,Portuguese Center of Geo-History and Prehistory, Largo de São Caetano, 2150-265, Golegã, Portugal.,Geosciences Center-University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, University of Coimbra, 3030-790, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Eugenia Tabakaki
- Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (FORTH), Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Ancient DNA Lab, N. Plastira 100, Vassilika Vouton, 70013, Irakleio, Greece
| | - Despoina Vassou
- Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (FORTH), Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Ancient DNA Lab, N. Plastira 100, Vassilika Vouton, 70013, Irakleio, Greece
| | - Nikos Poulakakis
- Natural History Museum of Crete, School of Sciences and Engineering, University of Crete, Knosos Avenue, 71409, Irakleio, Greece.,Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Engineering, University of Crete, Vassilika Vouton, 70013, Irakleio, Greece
| | - Dimitris Kafetzopoulos
- Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (FORTH), Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Ancient DNA Lab, N. Plastira 100, Vassilika Vouton, 70013, Irakleio, Greece
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5
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Social structure and demography of a remnant Asian elephant Elephas maximus population and the implications for survival. ORYX 2020. [DOI: 10.1017/s0030605319000504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractThe Asian elephant Elephas maximus is at risk of extinction as a result of anthropogenic pressures, and remaining populations are often small and fragmented remnants, occupying a fraction of the species' former range. Once widely distributed across China, only a maximum of 245 elephants are estimated to survive across seven small populations. We assessed the Asian elephant population in Nangunhe National Nature Reserve in Lincang Prefecture, China, using camera traps during May–July 2017, to estimate the population size and structure of this genetically important population. Although detection probability was low (0.31), we estimated a total population size of c. 20 individuals, and an effective density of 0.39 elephants per km2. Social structure indicated a strong sex ratio bias towards females, with only one adult male detected within the population. Most of the elephants associated as one herd but three adult females remained separate from the herd throughout the trapping period. These results highlight the fragility of remnant elephant populations such as Nangunhe and we suggest options such as a managed metapopulation approach for their continued survival in China and more widely.
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Zhao K, Ishida Y, Green CE, Davidson AG, Sitam FAT, Donnelly CL, De Flamingh A, Perrin-Stowe TIN, Bourgeois S, Brandt AL, Mundis SJ, Van Aarde RJ, Greenberg JA, Malhi RS, Georgiadis NJ, Mcewing R, Roca AL. Loxodonta Localizer: A Software Tool for Inferring the Provenance of African Elephants and Their Ivory Using Mitochondrial DNA. J Hered 2019; 110:761-768. [DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esz058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Illegal hunting is a major threat to the elephants of Africa, with more elephants killed by poachers than die from natural causes. DNA from tusks has been used to infer the source populations for confiscated ivory, relying on nuclear genetic markers. However, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences can also provide information on the geographic origins of elephants due to female elephant philopatry. Here, we introduce the Loxodonta Localizer (LL; www.loxodontalocalizer.org), an interactive software tool that uses a database of mtDNA sequences compiled from previously published studies to provide information on the potential provenance of confiscated ivory. A 316 bp control region sequence, which can be readily generated from DNA extracted from ivory, is used as a query. The software generates a listing of haplotypes reported among 1917 African elephants in 24 range countries, sorted in order of similarity to the query sequence. The African locations from which haplotype sequences have been previously reported are shown on a map. We demonstrate examples of haplotypes reported from only a single locality or country, examine the utility of the program in identifying elephants from countries with varying degrees of sampling, and analyze batches of confiscated ivory. The LL allows for the source of confiscated ivory to be assessed within days, using widely available molecular methods that do not depend on a particular platform or laboratory. The program enables identification of potential regions or localities from which elephants are being poached, with capacity for rapid identification of populations newly or consistently targeted by poachers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhao
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | - Yasuko Ishida
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | - Cory E Green
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | - Alexis G Davidson
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | - Frankie A T Sitam
- National Wildlife Forensic Laboratory, Ex-Situ Conservation Division, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Jalan Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Cassidy L Donnelly
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | - Alida De Flamingh
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana IL
| | - Tolulope I N Perrin-Stowe
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana IL
| | | | - Adam L Brandt
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
- Division of Natural Sciences, St. Norbert College, De Pere, WI
| | | | - Rudi J Van Aarde
- Conservation Ecology Research Unit, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jonathan A Greenberg
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, University of Nevada, Reno, NV
| | - Ripan S Malhi
- Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | | | | | - Alfred L Roca
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
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7
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Roca AL. African elephant genetics: enigmas and anomalies. J Genet 2019; 98:83. [PMID: 31544772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
During the last two decades, our understanding of the genetics of African elephant populations has greatly increased. Strong evidence, both morphological and genetic, supports recognition of two African elephant species: the savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) and the forest elephant (L. cyclotis). Among elephantids, phylogeographic patterns for mitochondrial DNA are highly incongruent with those detected using nuclear DNA markers, and this incongruence is almost certainly due to strongly male-biased geneflow in elephants. As our understanding of elephant population genetics has grown, a number of observations may be considered enigmatic or anomalous. Here, several of these are discussed. (i) There are a number of within-species morphological differences purported to exist among elephants in different geographic regions, which would be difficult to reconcile with the low genetic differentiation among populations. (ii) Forest elephants have a higher effective population size than savanna elephants, with nuclear genetic markers much more diverse in the forest elephants than savanna elephants, yet this finding would need to be reconciled with the life history of the two species. (iii) The savanna and forest elephants hybridize and produce fertile offspring, yet full genome analysis of individuals distant from the hybrid zone suggests that gene flow has been effectively sterilized for atleast ∼500,000 years. (iv) There are unexplored potential ramifications of the unusual mito-nuclear patterns among elephants. These questions are considered in light of highmale and low female dispersal in elephants, higher variance of reproductive success among males than females, and of habitat changes driven by glacial cycles and human activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred L Roca
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
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9
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Moodley Y, Russo IRM, Robovský J, Dalton DL, Kotzé A, Smith S, Stejskal J, Ryder OA, Hermes R, Walzer C, Bruford MW. Contrasting evolutionary history, anthropogenic declines and genetic contact in the northern and southern white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum). Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:rspb.2018.1567. [PMID: 30404873 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) has a discontinuous African distribution, which is limited by the extent of sub-Saharan grasslands. The southern population (SWR) declined to its lowest number around the turn of the nineteenth century, but recovered to become the world's most numerous rhinoceros. In contrast, the northern population (NWR) was common during much of the twentieth century, declining rapidly since the 1970s, and now only two post-reproductive individuals remain. Despite this species's conservation status, it lacks a genetic assessment of its demographic history. We therefore sampled 232 individuals from extant and museum sources and analysed ten microsatellite loci and the mtDNA control region. Both marker types reliably partitioned the species into SWR and NWR, with moderate nuclear genetic diversity and only three mtDNA haplotypes for the species, including historical samples. We detected ancient interglacial demographic declines in both populations. Both populations may also have been affected by recent declines associated with the colonial expansion for the SWR, and with the much earlier Bantu migrations for the NWR. Finally, we detected post-divergence secondary contact between NWR and SWR, possibly occurring as recently as the last glacial maximum. These results suggest the species was subjected to regular periods of fragmentation and low genetic diversity, which may have been replenished upon secondary contact during glacial periods. The species's current situation thus reflects prehistoric declines that were exacerbated by anthropogenic pressure associated with the rise of late Holocene technological advancement in Africa. Importantly, secondary contact suggests a potentially positive outcome for a hybrid rescue conservation strategy, although further genome-wide data are desirable to corroborate these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshan Moodley
- Department of Zoology, University of Venda, University Road, Thohoyandou 0950, Republic of South Africa
| | - Isa-Rita M Russo
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Jan Robovský
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, České Budějovice, 37005, Czech Republic
| | - Desiré L Dalton
- Department of Zoology, University of Venda, University Road, Thohoyandou 0950, Republic of South Africa.,National Zoological Garden, South African National Biodiversity Institute, PO Box 754, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
| | - Antoinette Kotzé
- National Zoological Garden, South African National Biodiversity Institute, PO Box 754, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.,Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, 205 Nelson Mandela Drive, West Park, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - Steve Smith
- Konrad Lorenz Institute for Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1A Savoyen Street, 1160, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jan Stejskal
- Zoo Dvůr Králové, Štefánikova 1029, Dvůr Králové nad Labem 54401, Czech Republic
| | - Oliver A Ryder
- Genetics Division, San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global, Escondido, CA, USA
| | - Robert Hermes
- Leibniz-Institut for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Straße 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany
| | - Chris Walzer
- Konrad Lorenz Institute for Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1A Savoyen Street, 1160, Vienna, Austria.,Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Blvd., 10460 Bronx, USA
| | - Michael W Bruford
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK .,Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3BA, UK
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Lobora AL, Nahonyo CL, Munishi LK, Caro T, Foley C, Prunier JG, Beale CM, Eggert LS. Incipient signs of genetic differentiation among African elephant populations in fragmenting miombo ecosystems in south-western Tanzania. Afr J Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/aje.12534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alex L. Lobora
- Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI); Arusha Tanzania
| | | | - Linus K. Munishi
- Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST); Arusha Tanzania
| | - Tim Caro
- Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology; University of California; Davis California
| | - Charles Foley
- Wildlife Conservation Society Tanzania Program; Arusha Tanzania
| | - Jérôme G. Prunier
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale; Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 5321; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS); Université Paul Sabatier (UPS); Moulis France
| | - Colin M. Beale
- Department of Biology; University of York; Heslington York UK
| | - Lori S. Eggert
- Division of Biological Sciences; University of Missouri; Columbia Missouri
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