1
|
Leaver M, Moreno E, Kayhan M, McGaughran A, Rödelsperger C, Sommer RJ, Hyman AA. Adaptation to environmental temperature in divergent clades of the nematode Pristionchus pacificus. Evolution 2022; 76:1660-1673. [PMID: 35696526 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Because of ongoing climate change, populations of organisms are being subjected to stressful temperatures more often. This is especially problematic for ectothermic organisms, which are likely to be more sensitive to changes in temperature. Therefore, we need to know if ectotherms have adapted to environmental temperature and, if so, what are the evolutionary mechanisms behind such adaptation. Here, we use the nematode Pristionchus pacificus as a case study to investigate thermal adaptation on the Indian Ocean island of La Réunion, which experiences a range of temperatures from coast to summit. We study the evolution of high-temperature tolerance by constructing a phylogenetic tree of strains collected from many different thermal niches. We show that populations of P. pacificus at low altitudes have higher fertility at warmer temperatures. Most likely, this phenotype has arisen recently and at least twice independently, consistent with parallel evolution. We also studied low-temperature tolerance and showed that populations from high altitudes have increased their fertility at cooler temperatures. Together, these data indicate that P. pacificus strains on La Réunion are subject to divergent selection, adapting to hot and cold niches at the coast and summit of the volcano. Precisely defining these thermal niches provides essential information for models that predict the impact of future climate change on these populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Leaver
- Biotechnologische Zentrum, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307, Dresden, Germany.,Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Eduardo Moreno
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Merve Kayhan
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, 01307, Dresden, Germany.,Physiologisches Institut der Universität Zürich, Zürich, CH-8057, Switzerland
| | - Angela McGaughran
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Te Aka Mātuatua - School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Christian Rödelsperger
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ralf J Sommer
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anthony A Hyman
- Biotechnologische Zentrum, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Morgan K, McGaughran A, Rödelsperger C, Sommer RJ. Variation in rates of spontaneous male production within the nematode species Pristionchus pacificus supports an adaptive role for males and outcrossing. BMC Evol Biol 2017; 17:57. [PMID: 28228092 PMCID: PMC5322664 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-017-0873-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The nematode species Pristionchus pacificus has an androdioecious mating system in which populations consist of self-fertilizing hermaphrodites and relatively few males. The prevalence of males in such a system is likely to depend on the relative pros and cons of outcrossing. While outcrossing generates novel allelic combinations and can therefore increase adaptive potential, it may also disrupt the potentially beneficial consequences of repeated generations of selfing. These include purging of deleterious alleles, inheritance of co-adapted allele complexes, improved hermaphrodite fitness and increased population growth. Here we use experimental and population genetic approaches to test hypotheses relating to male production and outcrossing in laboratory and natural populations of P. pacificus sampled from the volcanic island of La Réunion. Results We find a significant interaction between sampling locality and temperature treatment influencing rates of spontaneous male production in the laboratory. While strains isolated at higher altitude, cooler localities produce a higher proportion of male offspring at 25 °C relative to 20 or 15 °C, the reverse pattern is seen in strains isolated from warmer, low altitude localities. Linkage disequilibrium extends across long physical distances, but fails to approach levels reported for the partially selfing nematode species Caenorhabditis elegans. Finally, we find evidence for admixture between divergent genetic lineages. Conclusions Elevated rates of laboratory male generation appear to occur under environmental conditions which differ from those experienced by populations in nature. Such elevated male generation may result in higher outcrossing rates, hence driving increased effective recombination and the creation of potentially adaptive novel allelic combinations. Patterns of linkage disequilibrium decay support selfing as the predominant reproductive strategy in P. pacificus. Finally, despite the potential for outcrossing depression, our results suggest admixture has occurred between distinct genetic lineages since their independent colonization of the island, suggesting outcrossing depression may not be uniform in this species. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0873-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katy Morgan
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, 72076, Germany. .,Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Orleans, 2000 Lakeshore Drive, New Orleans, LA70148, USA.
| | - Angela McGaughran
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, 72076, Germany.,CSIRO Land & Water, Black Mountain Laboratories, Clunies Ross Street, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.,University of Melbourne, School of BioSciences, 30 Flemington Road, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Christian Rödelsperger
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Ralf J Sommer
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Moreno E, McGaughran A, Rödelsperger C, Zimmer M, Sommer RJ. Oxygen-induced social behaviours in Pristionchus pacificus have a distinct evolutionary history and genetic regulation from Caenorhabditis elegans. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 283:20152263. [PMID: 26888028 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.2263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild isolates of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans perform social behaviours, namely clumping and bordering, to avoid hyperoxia under laboratory conditions. In contrast, the laboratory reference strain N2 has acquired a solitary behaviour in the laboratory, related to a gain-of-function variant in the neuropeptide Y-like receptor NPR-1. Here, we study the evolution and natural variation of clumping and bordering behaviours in Pristionchus pacificus nematodes in a natural context, using strains collected from 22 to 2400 metres above sea level on La Réunion Island. Through the analysis of 106 wild isolates, we show that the majority of strains display a solitary behaviour similar to C. elegans N2, whereas social behaviours are predominantly seen in strains that inhabit high-altitude locations. We show experimentally that P. pacificus social strains perform clumping and bordering to avoid hyperoxic conditions in the laboratory, suggesting that social strains may have adapted to or evolved a preference for the lower relative oxygen levels available at high altitude in nature. In contrast to C. elegans, clumping and bordering in P. pacificus do not correlate with locomotive behaviours in response to changes in oxygen conditions. Furthermore, QTL analysis indicates clumping and bordering to represent complex quantitative traits. Thus, clumping and bordering behaviours represent an example of phenotypic convergence with a different evolutionary history and distinct genetic control in both nematode species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Moreno
- Department for Integrative Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Angela McGaughran
- Department for Integrative Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076 Tübingen, Germany CSIRO Land and Water, Black Mountain Laboratories, Clunies Ross Street, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Christian Rödelsperger
- Department for Integrative Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Manuel Zimmer
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology IMP, Vienna Biocenter VBC, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 7, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ralf J Sommer
- Department for Integrative Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
McGaughran A, Rödelsperger C, Grimm DG, Meyer JM, Moreno E, Morgan K, Leaver M, Serobyan V, Rakitsch B, Borgwardt KM, Sommer RJ. Genomic Profiles of Diversification and Genotype–Phenotype Association in Island Nematode Lineages. Mol Biol Evol 2016; 33:2257-72. [DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msw093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
|
5
|
Sommer RJ, Mayer MG. Toward a Synthesis of Developmental Biology with Evolutionary Theory and Ecology. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2015; 31:453-71. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-102314-112451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ralf J. Sommer
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max-Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076 Tübingen, Germany;
| | - Melanie G. Mayer
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max-Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076 Tübingen, Germany;
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Cinkornpumin JK, Wisidagama DR, Rapoport V, Go JL, Dieterich C, Wang X, Sommer RJ, Hong RL. A host beetle pheromone regulates development and behavior in the nematode Pristionchus pacificus. eLife 2014; 3. [PMID: 25317948 PMCID: PMC4270288 DOI: 10.7554/elife.03229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nematodes and insects are the two most speciose animal phyla and nematode–insect associations encompass widespread biological interactions. To dissect the chemical signals and the genes mediating this association, we investigated the effect of an oriental beetle sex pheromone on the development and behavior of the nematode Pristionchus pacificus. We found that while the beetle pheromone is attractive to P. pacificus adults, the pheromone arrests embryo development, paralyzes J2 larva, and inhibits exit of dauer larvae. To uncover the mechanism that regulates insect pheromone sensitivity, a newly identified mutant, Ppa-obi-1, is used to reveal the molecular links between altered attraction towards the beetle pheromone, as well as hypersensitivity to its paralyzing effects. Ppa-obi-1 encodes lipid-binding domains and reaches its highest expression in various cell types, including the amphid neuron sheath and excretory cells. Our data suggest that the beetle host pheromone may be a species-specific volatile synomone that co-evolved with necromeny. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03229.001 The nematode worm Pristionchus pacificus can live as a parasite inside the oriental beetle, where it waits for the beetle to die so it can feed off the bacteria that live on the beetle's decomposing carcass. This ecologically important interaction is called necromeny. P. pacificus is attracted to a new host by a sex pheromone produced by the beetle, but the genes and biological mechanisms that enable this interaction to occur are not understood in much detail. To identify the genetic basis of this interaction, Cinkornpumin et al. identified and examined a mutant form of P. pacificus that cannot sense the beetle sex pheromone. This revealed that although this pheromone attracts the adult nematodes, it stops P. pacificus embryos developing and can paralyze larvae. Cinkornpumin et al. suggest that the pheromone has likely evolved this ability in order to counteract the spread of the nematodes. This result implies that being invaded by P. pacificus makes life more difficult for the beetles than was previously thought. Further investigation of the gene damaged in the P. pacificus mutants revealed that it encodes a protein that may bind to molecules called lipids, which are needed to form cell membranes and are used in cell signaling. As well as helping the nematodes to detect the sex pheromone, the lipid-binding protein also appears to help protect the worms from the pheromone's detrimental effects. Cinkornpumin et al. observed that the gene for the lipid-binding protein is activated in several tissues, including the cells that form a sheath around some of the nerves that detect chemical signals. Whether this tissue is responsible for the chemical-sensing abilities of the lipid-binding protein, and whether these same tissues are responsible for protecting the nematodes from the damaging effects of the pheromone, remains to be discovered. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03229.002
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica K Cinkornpumin
- Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, Northridge, United States
| | - Dona R Wisidagama
- Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, Northridge, United States
| | - Veronika Rapoport
- Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, Northridge, United States
| | - James L Go
- Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, Northridge, United States
| | - Christoph Dieterich
- Department of Bioinformatics, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Xiaoyue Wang
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Ralf J Sommer
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Ray L Hong
- Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, Northridge, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Morgan K, McGaughran A, Ganeshan S, Herrmann M, Sommer RJ. Landscape and oceanic barriers shape dispersal and population structure in the island nematodePristionchus pacificus. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katy Morgan
- Department of Evolutionary Biology; Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology; Spemannstr. 37 Tübingen Germany
| | - Angela McGaughran
- Department of Evolutionary Biology; Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology; Spemannstr. 37 Tübingen Germany
| | | | - Matthias Herrmann
- Department of Evolutionary Biology; Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology; Spemannstr. 37 Tübingen Germany
| | - Ralf J. Sommer
- Department of Evolutionary Biology; Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology; Spemannstr. 37 Tübingen Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Environmental variables explain genetic structure in a beetle-associated nematode. PLoS One 2014; 9:e87317. [PMID: 24498073 PMCID: PMC3909076 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The distribution of a species is a complex expression of its ecological and evolutionary history and integrating population genetic, environmental, and ecological data can provide new insights into the effects of the environment on the population structure of species. Previous work demonstrated strong patterns of genetic differentiation in natural populations of the hermaphroditic nematode Pristionchus pacificus in its La Réunion Island habitat, but gave no clear understanding of the role of the environment in structuring this variation. Here, we present what is to our knowledge the first study to statistically evaluate the role of the environment in shaping the structure and distribution of nematode populations. We test the hypothesis that genetic structure in P. pacificus is influenced by environmental variables, by combining population genetic analyses of microsatellite data from 18 populations and 370 strains, with multivariate statistics on environmental data, and species distribution modelling. We assess and quantify the relative importance of environmental factors (geographic distance, altitude, temperature, precipitation, and beetle host) on genetic variation among populations. Despite the fact that geographic populations of P. pacificus comprise vast genetic diversity sourced from multiple ancestral lineages, we find strong evidence for local associations between environment and genetic variation. Further, we show that significantly more genetic variation in P. pacificus populations is explained by environmental variation than by geographic distances. This supports a strong role for environmental heterogeneity vs. genetic drift in the divergence of populations, which we suggest may be influenced by adaptive forces.
Collapse
|
9
|
Opposing forces of A/T-biased mutations and G/C-biased gene conversions shape the genome of the nematode Pristionchus pacificus. Genetics 2014; 196:1145-52. [PMID: 24414549 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.113.159863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Base substitution mutations are a major source of genetic novelty and mutation accumulation line (MAL) studies revealed a nearly universal AT bias in de novo mutation spectra. While a comparison of de novo mutation spectra with the actual nucleotide composition in the genome suggests the existence of general counterbalancing mechanisms, little is known about the evolutionary and historical details of these opposing forces. Here, we correlate MAL-derived mutation spectra with patterns observed from population resequencing. Variation observed in natural populations has already been subject to evolutionary forces. Distinction between rare and common alleles, the latter of which are close to fixation and of presumably older age, can provide insight into mutational processes and their influence on genome evolution. We provide a genome-wide analysis of de novo mutations in 22 MALs of the nematode Pristionchus pacificus and compare the spectra with natural variants observed in resequencing of 104 natural isolates. MALs show an AT bias of 5.3, one of the highest values observed to date. In contrast, the AT bias in natural variants is much lower. Specifically, rare derived alleles show an AT bias of 2.4, whereas common derived alleles close to fixation show no AT bias at all. These results indicate the existence of a strong opposing force and they suggest that the GC content of the P. pacificus genome is in equilibrium. We discuss GC-biased gene conversion as a potential mechanism acting against AT-biased mutations. This study provides insight into genome evolution by combining MAL studies with natural variation.
Collapse
|
10
|
McGaughran A, Morgan K, Sommer RJ. Natural variation in chemosensation: lessons from an island nematode. Ecol Evol 2013; 3:5209-24. [PMID: 24455150 PMCID: PMC3892330 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
All organisms must interact with their environment, responding in behavioral, chemical, and other ways to various stimuli throughout their life cycles. Characterizing traits that directly represent an organism's ability to sense and react to their environment provides useful insight into the evolution of life-history strategies. One such trait for the nematode Pristionchus pacificus, chemosensation, is involved in navigation to beetle hosts. Essential for the survival of the nematode, chemosensory behavior may be subject to variation as nematodes discriminate among chemical cues to complete their life cycle. We examine this hypothesis using natural isolates of P. pacificus from La Réunion Island. We select strains from a variety of La Réunion beetle hosts and geographic locations and examine their chemoattraction response toward organic compounds, beetle washes, and live beetles. We find that nematodes show significant differences in their response to various chemicals and are able to chemotax to live beetles in a novel assay. Further, strains can discriminate among different cues, showing more similar responses toward beetle washes than to organic compounds in cluster analyses. However, we find that variance in chemoattraction response is not significantly associated with temperature, location, or beetle host. Rather, strains show a more concerted response toward compounds they most likely directly encounter in the wild. We suggest that divergence in odor-guided behavior in P. pacificus may therefore have an important ecological component.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angela McGaughran
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology Tübingen, D-72076, Germany
| | - Katy Morgan
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology Tübingen, D-72076, Germany
| | - Ralf J Sommer
- Department for Evolutionary Biology, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology Tübingen, D-72076, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gilabert A, Wasmuth JD. Unravelling parasitic nematode natural history using population genetics. Trends Parasitol 2013; 29:438-48. [PMID: 23948430 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Revised: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The health and economic importance of parasitic nematodes cannot be overstated. Moreover, they offer a complex and diverse array of life strategies, raising a multitude of evolutionary questions. Researchers are applying population genetics to parasitic nematodes in order to disentangle some aspects of their life strategies, improve our knowledge about disease epidemiology, and design control strategies. However, population genetics studies of nematodes have been constrained due to the difficulty in sampling nematodes and developing molecular markers. In this context, new computational and sequencing technologies represent promising tools to investigate population genomics of parasitic, non-model, nematode species in an epidemiological context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aude Gilabert
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Sommer RJ, McGaughran A. The nematode Pristionchus pacificus as a model system for integrative studies in evolutionary biology. Mol Ecol 2013; 22:2380-93. [PMID: 23530614 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Revised: 01/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Comprehensive studies of evolution have historically been hampered by the division among disciplines. Now, as biology moves towards an '-omics' era, it is more important than ever to tackle the evolution of function and form by considering all those research areas involved in the regulation of phenotypes. Here, we review recent attempts to establish the nematode Pristionchus pacificus as a model organism that allows integrative studies of development and evo-devo, with ecology and population genetics. Originally developed for comparative study with the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, P. pacificus provided insight into developmental pathways including dauer formation, vulva and gonad development, chemosensation, innate immunity and neurobiology. Its subsequent discovery across a wide geographic distribution in association with scarab beetles enabled its evaluation in a biogeographic context. Development of an evolutionary field station on La Réunion Island, where P. pacificus is present in high abundance across a number of widespread habitat types, allows examination of the microfacets of evolution - processes of natural selection, adaptation and drift among populations can now be examined in this island setting. The combination of laboratory-based functional studies with fieldwork in P. pacificus has the long-term prospective to provide both proximate (mechanistic) and ultimate (evolutionary and ecological) causation and might therefore help to overcome the long-term divide between major areas in biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ralf J Sommer
- Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Department of Evolutionary Biology, Tübingen, Germany.
| | | |
Collapse
|