1
|
Blair JD, Gaynor KM, Palmer MS, Marshall KE. A gentle introduction to computer vision-based specimen classification in ecological datasets. J Anim Ecol 2024; 93:147-158. [PMID: 38230868 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.14042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Classifying specimens is a critical component of ecological research, biodiversity monitoring and conservation. However, manual classification can be prohibitively time-consuming and expensive, limiting how much data a project can afford to process. Computer vision, a form of machine learning, can help overcome these problems by rapidly, automatically and accurately classifying images of specimens. Given the diversity of animal species and contexts in which images are captured, there is no universal classifier for all species and use cases. As such, ecologists often need to train their own models. While numerous software programs exist to support this process, ecologists need a fundamental understanding of how computer vision works to select appropriate model workflows based on their specific use case, data types, computing resources and desired performance capabilities. Ecologists may also face characteristic quirks of ecological datasets, such as long-tail distributions, 'unknown' species, similarity between species and polymorphism within species, which impact the efficacy of computer vision. Despite growing interest in computer vision for ecology, there are few resources available to help ecologists face the challenges they are likely to encounter. Here, we present a gentle introduction for species classification using computer vision. In this manuscript and associated GitHub repository, we demonstrate how to prepare training data, basic model training procedures, and methods for model evaluation and selection. Throughout, we explore specific considerations ecologists should make when training classification models, such as data domains, feature extractors and class imbalances. With these basics, ecologists can adjust their workflows to achieve research goals and/or account for uncertainty in downstream analysis. Our goal is to provide guidance for ecologists for getting started in or improving their use of machine learning for visual classification tasks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jarrett D Blair
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Kaitlyn M Gaynor
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Meredith S Palmer
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Katie E Marshall
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
SanClements MD, Record S, Rose KC, Donnelly A, Chong SS, Duffy K, Hallmark A, Heffernan JB, Liu J, Mitchell JJ, Moore DJP, Naithani K, O'Reilly CM, Sokol ER, Stack Whitney K, Weintraub‐Leff SR, Yang D. People, infrastructure, and data: A pathway to an inclusive and diverse ecological network of networks. Ecosphere 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.4262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sydne Record
- Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Conservation Biology University of Maine Orono Maine USA
| | - Kevin C. Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy New York USA
| | - Alison Donnelly
- Department of Geography University of Wisconsin‐Milwaukee Milwaukee Wisconsin USA
| | - Steven S. Chong
- University of California Berkeley Library University of California Berkeley California USA
| | - Katharyn Duffy
- School of Informatics, Computing and Cyber Systems Northern Arizona University Flagstaff Arizona USA
| | - Alesia Hallmark
- National Ecological Observatory Network Battelle Boulder Colorado USA
| | - James B. Heffernan
- Nicholas School of the Environment Duke University Durham North Carolina USA
| | - Jianguo Liu
- Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Michigan State University East Lansing Michigan USA
| | | | - David J. P. Moore
- School of Natural Resources and the Environment University of Arizona Tucson Arizona USA
| | - Kusum Naithani
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas Fayetteville Arkansas USA
| | - Catherine M. O'Reilly
- Department of Geography, Geology, and the Environment Illinois State University Normal Illinois USA
| | - Eric R. Sokol
- National Ecological Observatory Network Battelle Boulder Colorado USA
| | - Kaitlin Stack Whitney
- Science, Technology & Society Department Rochester Institute of Technology Rochester New York USA
| | | | - Di Yang
- Wyoming Geographic Information Science Center University of Wyoming Laramie Wyoming USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Blair J, Weiser MD, de Beurs K, Kaspari M, Siler C, Marshall KE. Embracing imperfection: Machine-assisted invertebrate classification in real-world datasets. ECOL INFORM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoinf.2022.101896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
4
|
Høye TT, Dyrmann M, Kjær C, Nielsen J, Bruus M, Mielec CL, Vesterdal MS, Bjerge K, Madsen SA, Jeppesen MR, Melvad C. Accurate image-based identification of macroinvertebrate specimens using deep learning-How much training data is needed? PeerJ 2022; 10:e13837. [PMID: 36032940 PMCID: PMC9415355 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Image-based methods for species identification offer cost-efficient solutions for biomonitoring. This is particularly relevant for invertebrate studies, where bulk samples often represent insurmountable workloads for sorting, identifying, and counting individual specimens. On the other hand, image-based classification using deep learning tools have strict requirements for the amount of training data, which is often a limiting factor. Here, we examine how classification accuracy increases with the amount of training data using the BIODISCOVER imaging system constructed for image-based classification and biomass estimation of invertebrate specimens. We use a balanced dataset of 60 specimens of each of 16 taxa of freshwater macroinvertebrates to systematically quantify how classification performance of a convolutional neural network (CNN) increases for individual taxa and the overall community as the number of specimens used for training is increased. We show a striking 99.2% classification accuracy when the CNN (EfficientNet-B6) is trained on 50 specimens of each taxon, and also how the lower classification accuracy of models trained on less data is particularly evident for morphologically similar species placed within the same taxonomic order. Even with as little as 15 specimens used for training, classification accuracy reached 97%. Our results add to a recent body of literature showing the huge potential of image-based methods and deep learning for specimen-based research, and furthermore offers a perspective to future automatized approaches for deriving ecological data from bulk arthropod samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Toke T. Høye
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark,Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Mads Dyrmann
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Christian Kjær
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Johnny Nielsen
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Marianne Bruus
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | | | - Kim Bjerge
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Sigurd A. Madsen
- Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Mads R. Jeppesen
- Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Claus Melvad
- Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark,Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bakonyi G, Vásárhelyi T, Szabó B. Pollution impacts on water bugs (Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha): state of the art and their biomonitoring potential. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:301. [PMID: 35344112 PMCID: PMC8960648 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-09961-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
As water pollution poses an increasing risk worldwide, it is timely to assess the achievements of the aquatic macroinvertebrate ecotoxicology to provide a sound basis for the discipline's future and support the development of biomonitoring. Aquatic and semi-aquatic bugs (Hemiptera: Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha) are ubiquitous in almost all water types, sometimes in high densities, and play a significant role in organic material turnover and energy flow. Nevertheless, they are ignored in the water pollution biomonitoring schemes. Here, based on 300 papers, we review and evaluate the effects of chemical pesticides, microorganism-derived pesticides, insecticides of plant origin, heavy metals, eutrophication, salinisation and light pollution which are summarised for the first time. Our review encompasses the results of 100 laboratory and 39 semi-field/field experiments with 47 pesticides and 70 active ingredients. Pyrethroids were found to be more toxic than organochlorine, organophosphate and neonicotinoid insecticides to water bugs, like other macroinvertebrate groups. Additionally, in 10 out of 17 cases, the recommended field concentration of the pesticide was higher than the LC50 values, indicating potential hazards to water bugs. The recommended field concentrations of pesticides used in mosquito larvae control were found non-toxic to water bugs. As very few replicated studies are available, other findings on the effects of pesticides cannot be generalised. The microorganism-derived pesticide Bti appears to be safe when used at the recommended field concentration. Data indicates that plant-derived pesticides are safe with a high degree of certainty. We have identified three research areas where water bugs could be better involved in water biomonitoring. First, some Halobates spp. are excellent, and Gerris spp. are promising sentinels for Cd contamination. Second, Micronecta and, to a certain extent, Corixidae species composition is connected to and the indicator of eutrophication. Third, the species composition of the Corixidae is related to salinisation, and a preliminary method to quantify the relationship is already available. Our review highlights the potential of water bugs in water pollution monitoring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Bakonyi
- Department of Zoology and Ecology, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 2100, Gödöllő, Hungary.
| | | | - Borbála Szabó
- Centre for Ecological Research, Institute of Ecology and Botany, "Lendület" Landscape and Conservation Ecology, 2163, Vácrátót, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hansen MF, Oparaeke A, Gallagher R, Karimi A, Tariq F, Smith ML. Towards Machine Vision for Insect Welfare Monitoring and Behavioural Insights. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:835529. [PMID: 35242842 PMCID: PMC8886630 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.835529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Machine vision has demonstrated its usefulness in the livestock industry in terms of improving welfare in such areas as lameness detection and body condition scoring in dairy cattle. In this article, we present some promising results of applying state of the art object detection and classification techniques to insects, specifically Black Soldier Fly (BSF) and the domestic cricket, with the view of enabling automated processing for insect farming. We also present the low-cost “Insecto” Internet of Things (IoT) device, which provides environmental condition monitoring for temperature, humidity, CO2, air pressure, and volatile organic compound levels together with high resolution image capture. We show that we are able to accurately count and measure size of BSF larvae and also classify the sex of domestic crickets by detecting the presence of the ovipositor. These early results point to future work for enabling automation in the selection of desirable phenotypes for subsequent generations and for providing early alerts should environmental conditions deviate from desired values.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark F. Hansen
- The Centre for Machine Vision, Bristol Robotics Laboratory, UWE Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Mark F. Hansen
| | | | - Ryan Gallagher
- The Centre for Machine Vision, Bristol Robotics Laboratory, UWE Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Amir Karimi
- The Centre for Machine Vision, Bristol Robotics Laboratory, UWE Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | - Melvyn L. Smith
- The Centre for Machine Vision, Bristol Robotics Laboratory, UWE Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kitzes J, Blake R, Bombaci S, Chapman M, Duran SM, Huang T, Joseph MB, Lapp S, Marconi S, Oestreich WK, Rhinehart TA, Schweiger AK, Song Y, Surasinghe T, Yang D, Yule K. Expanding NEON biodiversity surveys with new instrumentation and machine learning approaches. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Justin Kitzes
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania USA
| | - Rachael Blake
- National Socio‐Environmental Synthesis Center Annapolis Maryland USA
| | - Sara Bombaci
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado USA
| | - Melissa Chapman
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management University of California Berkeley Berkeley California USA
| | - Sandra M. Duran
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology The University of Arizona Tucson Arizona USA
| | - Tao Huang
- Human‐Environment Systems Boise State University Boise Idaho USA
| | - Maxwell B. Joseph
- Earth Lab Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES) University of Colorado Boulder Boulder Colorado USA
| | - Samuel Lapp
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania USA
| | - Sergio Marconi
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation University of Florida Gainesville Florida USA
| | | | - Tessa A. Rhinehart
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania USA
| | | | - Yiluan Song
- Environmental Studies Department University of California Santa Cruz California USA
| | - Thilina Surasinghe
- Department of Biological Sciences Bridgewater State University Bridgewater Massachusetts USA
| | - Di Yang
- Wyoming Geographic Information Science Center (WyGISC) University of Wyoming Laramie Wyoming USA
| | - Kelsey Yule
- National Ecological Observatory Network Biorepository Arizona State University Tempe Arizona USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kaspari M, Weiser MD, Marshall KE, Miller M, Siler C, de Beurs K. Activity density at a continental scale: What drives invertebrate biomass moving across the soil surface? Ecology 2021; 103:e03542. [PMID: 34614206 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.3542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Activity density (AD), the rate that an individual taxon or its biomass moves through the environment, is used both to monitor communities and quantify the potential for ecosystem work. The Abundance Velocity Hypothesis posited that AD increases with aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) and is a unimodal function of temperature. Here we show that, at continental extents, increasing ANPP may have nonlinear effects on AD: increasing abundance, but decreasing velocity as accumulating vegetation interferes with movement. We use 5 yr of data from the NEON invertebrate pitfall trap arrays including 43 locations and four habitat types for a total of 77 habitat-site combinations to evaluate continental drivers of invertebrate AD. ANPP and temperature accounted for one-third to 92% of variation in AD. As predicted, AD was a unimodal function of temperature in forests and grasslands but increased linearly in open scrublands. ANPP yielded further nonlinear effects, generating unimodal AD curves in wetlands, and bimodal curves in forests. While all four habitats showed no AD trends over 5 yr of sampling, these nonlinearities suggest that trends in AD, often used to infer changes in insect abundance, will vary qualitatively across ecoregions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Kaspari
- Department of Biology, Geographical Ecology Group, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, USA
| | - Michael D Weiser
- Department of Biology, Geographical Ecology Group, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, USA
| | - Katie E Marshall
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Matthew Miller
- Department of Biology, Geographical Ecology Group, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, USA
| | - Cameron Siler
- Department of Biology, Geographical Ecology Group, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, USA.,Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73072-7029, USA
| | - Kirsten de Beurs
- Department of Geography and Environmental Sustainability, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, USA
| |
Collapse
|